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\begin{document}
-\title{Lifetime Coverage Optimization Protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks} %LiCO Protocol
-
-
+%\title{Lifetime Coverage Optimization Protocol \\
+% in Wireless Sensor Networks}
+\title{Perimeter-based Coverage Optimization to Improve \\
+ Lifetime in Wireless Sensor Networks}
\author{Ali Kadhum Idrees,~\IEEEmembership{}
Karine Deschinkel,~\IEEEmembership{}
Michel Salomon,~\IEEEmembership{}
and~Rapha\"el Couturier ~\IEEEmembership{}
-\thanks{The authors are with FEMTO-ST Institute, UMR 6174 CNRS, University of Franche-Comt\'e, Belfort, France. Email: ali.idness@edu.univ-fcomte.fr, $\lbrace$karine.deschinkel, michel.salomon, raphael.couturier$\rbrace$@univ-fcomte.fr}}
-%\thanks{J. Doe and J. Doe are with Anonymous University.}% <-this % stops a space
-%\thanks{Manuscript received April 19, 2005; revised December 27, 2012.}}
-
-\markboth{IEEE Communications Letters,~Vol.~11, No.~4, December~2014}%
-{Shell \MakeLowercase{\textit{et al.}}: Bare Demo of IEEEtran.cls for Journals}
+ \thanks{The authors are with FEMTO-ST Institute, UMR 6174 CNRS, University of Franche-Comte,
+ Belfort, France. Email: ali.idness@edu.univ-fcomte.fr, $\lbrace$karine.deschinkel,
+ michel.salomon, raphael.couturier$\rbrace$@univ-fcomte.fr}}
+\markboth{IEEE Communications Letters,~Vol.~XX, No.~Y, January 2015}%
+{Shell \MakeLowercase{\textit{et al.}}: Bare Demo of IEEEtran.cls for Journals}
\maketitle
-
\begin{abstract}
-
-
- One fundamental issue in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is the lifetime coverage optimization, which reflects how well a WSN is covered so that the network lifetime can be maximized. In this paper, a Lifetime Coverage Optimization Protocol (LiCO) in WSNs is proposed. The surveillance region is divided into subregions and LiCO protocol is distributed among sensor nodes in each subregion. LiC0 protocols works into periods, each period is divided into four stages: Information exchange, Leader Election, Optimization Decision, and Sensing. Schedules node activities (wakeup and sleep of sensors) is performed in each subregion by a leader whose selection is the result of cooperation between nodes within the same subregion. The novelty of the approach lies essentially in the formulation of a new mathematical optimization model based on perimeter coverage level to schedule sensors activities. Extensive simulation experiments have been performed using OMNeT++, the discrete event simulator, to demonstrate that LiCO is capable to extend the lifetime coverage of WSN as longer time as possible in comparison with some other protocols.
-
-\end{abstract}
-
+The most important problem in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is to optimize the
+use of its limited energy provision, so that it can fulfill its monitoring task
+as long as possible. Among known available approaches that can be used to
+improve power management, lifetime coverage optimization provides activity
+scheduling which ensures sensing coverage while minimizing the energy cost. In
+this paper, we propose such an approach called Lifetime Coverage Optimization
+protocol (LiCO). It is a hybrid of centralized and distributed methods: the
+region of interest is first subdivided into subregions and our protocol is then
+distributed among sensor nodes in each subregion.
+% A sensor node which runs LiCO protocol repeats periodically four stages:
+%information exchange, leader election, optimization decision, and sensing.
+%More precisely, the scheduling of nodes' activities (sleep/wake up duty cycles)
+%is achieved in each subregion by a leader selected after cooperation between
+%nodes within the same subregion.
+The novelty of our approach lies essentially in the formulation of a new
+mathematical optimization model based on perimeter coverage level to schedule
+sensors' activities. Extensive simulation experiments have been performed using
+OMNeT++, the discrete event simulator, to demonstrate that LiCO is capable to
+offer longer lifetime coverage for WSNs in comparison with some other protocols.
+\end{abstract}
% Note that keywords are not normally used for peerreview papers.
\begin{IEEEkeywords}
Wireless Sensor Networks, Area Coverage, Network lifetime, Optimization, Scheduling.
\end{IEEEkeywords}
-
\IEEEpeerreviewmaketitle
-
-
-
-
-\section{\uppercase{Introduction}}
+\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:introduction}
-\noindent The great development in Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and wireless communication hardware are being led to emerge networks of tiny distributed sensors called WSN~\cite{akyildiz2002wireless,puccinelli2005wireless}. WSN comprises of small, low-powered sensors working together for perform a typical mission by communicating with one another through multihop wireless connections. They can send the sensed measurements based on local decisions to the user by means of sink nodes. WSN has been used in many applications such as Military, Habitat, Environment, Health, industrial, and Business~\cite{yick2008wireless}.Typically, a sensor node contains three main parts~\cite{anastasi2009energy}: a sensing subsystem, for sense, measure, and gather the measurements from the real environment; processing subsystem, for measurements processing and storage; a communication subsystem, for data transmission and receiving. Moreover, the energy needed by the sensor node is supplied by a power supply, to accomplish the scheduled task. This power supply is composed of a battery with a limited lifetime. And it maybe be unsuitable or impossible to replace or recharge the batteries in most applications. It is then necessary to deploy the WSN with high density so as to increase the reliability and to exploit redundancy by using energy-efficient activity scheduling approaches. So, the main question is: how to extend the lifetime coverage of WSN as long time as possible while ensuring a high level of coverage? Many energy-efficient mechanisms have been suggested to retain energy and extend the lifetime of the WSNs~\cite{rault2014energy}. \\
+
+\noindent The continuous progress in Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and
+wireless communication hardware has given rise to the opportunity to use large
+networks of tiny sensors, called Wireless Sensor Networks
+(WSN)~\cite{akyildiz2002wireless,puccinelli2005wireless}, to fulfill monitoring
+tasks. A WSN consists of small low-powered sensors working together by
+communicating with one another through multi-hop radio communications. Each node
+can send the data it collects in its environment, thanks to its sensor, to the
+user by means of sink nodes. The features of a WSN made it suitable for a wide
+range of application in areas such as business, environment, health, industry,
+military, and so on~\cite{yick2008wireless}. Typically, a sensor node contains
+three main components~\cite{anastasi2009energy}: a sensing unit able to measure
+physical, chemical, or biological phenomena observed in the environment; a
+processing unit which will process and store the collected measurements; a radio
+communication unit for data transmission and receiving.
+
+The energy needed by an active sensor node to perform sensing, processing, and
+communication is supplied by a power supply which is a battery. This battery has
+a limited energy provision and it may be unsuitable or impossible to replace or
+recharge it in most applications. Therefore it is necessary to deploy WSN with
+high density in order to increase the reliability and to exploit node redundancy
+thanks to energy-efficient activity scheduling approaches. Indeed, the overlap
+of sensing areas can be exploited to schedule alternatively some sensors in a
+low power sleep mode and thus save energy. Overall, the main question that must
+be answered is: how to extend the lifetime coverage of a WSN as long as possible
+while ensuring a high level of coverage? So, this last years many
+energy-efficient mechanisms have been suggested to retain energy and extend the
+lifetime of the WSNs~\cite{rault2014energy}.
%The sensor system ought to have a lifetime long enough to satisfy the application necessities. The lifetime coverage maximization is one of the fundamental requirements of any area coverage protocol in WSN implementation~\cite{nayak2010wireless}. In order to increase the reliability and prevent the possession of coverage holes (some parts are not covered in the area of interest) in the WSN, it is necessary to deploy the WSN with high density so as to increase the reliability and to exploit redundancy by using energy-efficient activity scheduling approaches.
%From a certain standpoint, the high coverage ratio is required by many applications such as military and health-care. Therefore, a suitable number of sensors are being chosen so as to cover the area of interest, is the first challenge. Meanwhile, the sensor nodes have a limited capabilities in terms of memory, processing, communication, and battery power being the most important and critical one. So, the main question is: how to extend the lifetime coverage of WSN as long time as possible?. There are many energy-efficient mechanisms have been suggested to retain energy and extend the lifetime of the WSNs~\cite{rault2014energy}.
-%\uppercase{\textbf{Our contributions.}}
-This paper makes the following contributions.\\
+%\uppercase{\textbf{Our contributions.}}
+
+This paper makes the following contributions.
\begin{enumerate}
-\item We devise a framework to schedules nodes to be activated alternatively, such that the network lifetime may be prolonged ans certain coverage requirement can still be met.
-This framework is based on the division of the area of interest into several smaller subregions; on the division of timeline into periods of equal length.
-One leader is elected for each subregion in an independent, distributed, and simultaneous way by the cooperation among the sensor nodes within each subregion, and this similar to cluster architecture
-\item We propose a new mathematical optimization model. Instead of trying to cover a set of specified points/targets as in most of the methods proposed in the literature,
-we formulate an integer program based on perimeter coverage of each sensor. The model involves integer variables to capture the deviations between the
-actual level of coverage and the required level. And a weighted sum of these deviations is minimized.
-\item We conducted extensive simulation experiments using the discrete event simulator OMNeT++, to demonstrate the efficiency of our protocol, compared to two approaches found in the literature, DESK \ref{} and GAF \ref{}, and compared to our previous work using another optimization model for sensor scheduling.
+\item We have devised a framework to schedule nodes to be activated alternatively such
+ that the network lifetime is prolonged while ensuring that a certain level of
+ coverage is preserved. A key idea in our framework is to exploit spatial and
+ temporal subdivision. On the one hand, the area of interest if divided into
+ several smaller subregions and, on the other hand, the time line is divided into
+ periods of equal length. In each subregion the sensor nodes will cooperatively
+ choose a leader which will schedule nodes' activities, and this grouping of
+ sensors is similar to typical cluster architecture.
+\item We have proposed a new mathematical optimization model. Instead of trying to
+ cover a set of specified points/targets as in most of the methods proposed in
+ the literature, we formulate an integer program based on perimeter coverage of
+ each sensor. The model involves integer variables to capture the deviations
+ between the actual level of coverage and the required level. Hence, an
+ optimal scheduling will be obtained by minimizing a weighted sum of these
+ deviations.
+\item We have conducted extensive simulation experiments, using the discrete event
+ simulator OMNeT++, to demonstrate the efficiency of our protocol. We have compared
+ our LiCO protocol to two approaches found in the literature:
+ DESK~\cite{ChinhVu} and GAF~\cite{xu2001geography}, and also to our previous
+ work published in~\cite{Idrees2} which is based on another optimization model
+ for sensor scheduling.
\end{enumerate}
-
%Two combined integrated energy-efficient techniques have been used by LiCO protocol in order to maximize the lifetime coverage in WSN: the first, by dividing the area of interest into several smaller subregions based on divide-and-conquer method and then one leader elected for each subregion in an independent, distributed, and simultaneous way by the cooperation among the sensor nodes within each subregion, and this similar to cluster architecture;
% the second, activity scheduling based new optimization model has been used to provide the optimal cover set that will take the mission of sensing during current period. This optimization algorithm is based on a perimeter-coverage model so as to optimize the shared perimeter among the sensors in each subregion, and this represents as a energu-efficient control topology mechanism in WSN.
-
-The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The next section reviews the related work in the field. Section~\ref{sec:The LiCO Protocol Description} is devoted to the LiCO protocol Description. Section~\ref{cp} gives the coverage model
-formulation which is used to schedule the activation of sensors.
-Section~\ref{sec:Simulation Results and Analysis} presents simulations results. Finally, we give concluding remarks and some suggestions for
-future works in Section~\ref{sec:Conclusion and Future Works}.
+The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section we review
+some related work in the field. Section~\ref{sec:The LiCO Protocol Description}
+is devoted to the LiCO protocol description and Section~\ref{cp} focuses on the
+coverage model formulation which is used to schedule the activation of sensor
+nodes. Section~\ref{sec:Simulation Results and Analysis} presents simulations
+results and discusses the comparison with other approaches. Finally, concluding
+remarks are drawn and some suggestions are given for future works in
+Section~\ref{sec:Conclusion and Future Works}.
% that show that our protocol outperforms others protocols.
-\section{\uppercase{Related Literature}}
+\section{Related Literature}
\label{sec:Literature Review}
-
\noindent In this section, we summarize some related works regarding the
-coverage problem and distinguish our LiCO protocol from the works presented in
+coverage problem and distinguish our LiCO protocol from the works presented in
the literature.
-The most discussed coverage problems in literature can be classified into three
-types \cite{li2013survey}: area coverage \cite{Misra} where every point inside
-an area is to be monitored, target coverage \cite{yang2014novel} where the main
-objective is to cover only a finite number of discrete points called targets,
-and barrier coverage \cite{Kumar:2005}\cite{kim2013maximum} to prevent intruders
-from entering into the region of interest. In \cite{Deng2012} authors transform
-the area coverage problem to the target coverage problem taking into account the
-intersection points among disks of sensors nodes or between disk of sensor nodes
-and boundaries. In \cite{Huang:2003:CPW:941350.941367} authors prove that if the perimeters of sensors are sufficiently covered, the whole area is sufficiently covered and they provide an algorithm in $O(n d log d)$ time to compute the perimeter-coverage of each sensor ($d$ the maximum number of sensors that are neighboring to a sensor, $n$ the total number of sensors in the network). {\it In LiCO protocol, rather than determining the level of coverage of a set of discrete points, our optimization model is based on checking the perimeter-coverage of each sensor to activate a minimal number of sensors.}
-
-The major approach to extend network lifetime while preserving coverage is to
-divide/organize the sensors into a suitable number of set covers (disjoint or
-non-disjoint), where each set completely covers a region of interest, and to
-activate these set covers successively. The network activity can be planned in
-advance and scheduled for the entire network lifetime or organized in periods,
+The most discussed coverage problems in literature can be classified in three
+categories~\cite{li2013survey} according to their respective monitoring
+objective. Hence, area coverage \cite{Misra} means that every point inside a
+fixed area must be monitored, while target coverage~\cite{yang2014novel} refers
+to the objective of coverage for a finite number of discrete points called
+targets, and barrier coverage~\cite{HeShibo}\cite{kim2013maximum} focuses on
+preventing intruders from entering into the region of interest. In
+\cite{Deng2012} authors transform the area coverage problem to the target
+coverage one taking into account the intersection points among disks of sensors
+nodes or between disk of sensor nodes and boundaries. In
+\cite{Huang:2003:CPW:941350.941367} authors prove that if the perimeters of
+sensors are sufficiently covered it will be the case for the whole area. They
+provide an algorithm in $O(nd~log~d)$ time to compute the perimeter-coverage of
+each sensor, where $d$ denotes the maximum number of sensors that are
+neighbors to a sensor and $n$ is the total number of sensors in the
+network. {\it In LiCO protocol, instead of determining the level of coverage of
+ a set of discrete points, our optimization model is based on checking the
+ perimeter-coverage of each sensor to activate a minimal number of sensors.}
+
+The major approach to extend network lifetime while preserving coverage is to
+divide/organize the sensors into a suitable number of set covers (disjoint or
+non-disjoint), where each set completely covers a region of interest, and to
+activate these set covers successively. The network activity can be planned in
+advance and scheduled for the entire network lifetime or organized in periods,
and the set of active sensor nodes is decided at the beginning of each period
\cite{ling2009energy}. Active node selection is determined based on the problem
-requirements (e.g. area monitoring, connectivity, power efficiency). For
-instance, Jaggi et al. \cite{jaggi2006} address the problem of maximizing
-network lifetime by dividing sensors into the maximum number of disjoint subsets
-such that each subset can ensure both coverage and connectivity. A greedy
+requirements (e.g. area monitoring, connectivity, or power efficiency). For
+instance, Jaggi {\em et al.}~\cite{jaggi2006} address the problem of maximizing
+the lifetime by dividing sensors into the maximum number of disjoint subsets
+such that each subset can ensure both coverage and connectivity. A greedy
algorithm is applied once to solve this problem and the computed sets are
activated in succession to achieve the desired network lifetime. Vu
-\cite{chin2007}, Padmatvathy et al. \cite{pc10}, propose algorithms working in a
-periodic fashion where a cover set is computed at the beginning of each period.
-{\it Motivated by these works, LiCO protocol works in periods, where each
- period contains a preliminary phase for information exchange and decisions,
- followed by a sensing phase where one cover set is in charge of the sensing
- task.}
-
-Various approaches, including centralized, or distributed algorithms, have been
-proposed to extend the network lifetime. In distributed
-algorithms~\cite{yangnovel,ChinhVu,qu2013distributed}, information is
-disseminated throughout the network and sensors decide cooperatively by
-communicating with their neighbors which of them will remain in sleep mode for a
-certain period of time. The centralized
+\cite{chin2007}, Padmatvathy {\em et al.}~\cite{pc10}, propose algorithms
+working in a periodic fashion where a cover set is computed at the beginning of
+each period. {\it Motivated by these works, LiCO protocol works in periods,
+ where each period contains a preliminary phase for information exchange and
+ decisions, followed by a sensing phase where one cover set is in charge of the
+ sensing task.}
+
+Various centralized and distributed approaches, or even a mixing of these two
+concepts, have been proposed to extend the network lifetime. In distributed
+algorithms~\cite{yangnovel,ChinhVu,qu2013distributed} each sensor decides of its
+own activity scheduling after an information exchange with its neighbors. The
+main interest of such an approach is to avoid long range communications and thus
+to reduce the energy dedicated to the communications. Unfortunately, since each
+node has only information on its immediate neighbors (usually the one-hop ones)
+it may take a bad decision leading to a global suboptimal solution. Conversely,
+centralized
algorithms~\cite{cardei2005improving,zorbas2010solving,pujari2011high} always
-provide nearly or close to optimal solution since the algorithm has global view
-of the whole network. But such a method has the disadvantage of requiring high
-communication costs, since the node (located at the base station) making the
-decision needs information from all the sensor nodes in the area and the amount
-of information can be huge. {\it In order to be suitable for large-scale
- network, in the LiCO protocol, the area of interest is divided into several
- smaller subregions, and in each one, a node called the leader is in charge for
- selecting the active sensors for the current period.}
-
-A large variety of coverage scheduling algorithms has been developed. Many of
-the existing algorithms, dealing with the maximization of the number of cover
-sets, are heuristics. These heuristics involve the construction of a cover set
-by including in priority the sensor nodes which cover critical targets, that is
-to say targets that are covered by the smallest number of sensors
+provide nearly or close to optimal solution since the algorithm has a global
+view of the whole network. The disadvantage of a centralized method is obviously
+its high cost in communications needed to transmit to a single node, the base
+station which will globally schedule nodes' activities, data from all the other
+sensor nodes in the area. The price in communications can be very huge since
+long range communications will be needed. In fact the larger the WNS is, the
+higher the communication and thus the energy cost are. {\it In order to be
+ suitable for large-scale networks, in the LiCO protocol, the area of interest
+ is divided into several smaller subregions, and in each one, a node called the
+ leader is in charge of selecting the active sensors for the current
+ period. Thus our protocol is scalable and is a globally distributed method,
+ whereas it is centralized in each subregion.}
+
+Various coverage scheduling algorithms have been developed this last years.
+Many of them, dealing with the maximization of the number of cover sets, are
+heuristics. These heuristics involve the construction of a cover set by
+including in priority the sensor nodes which cover critical targets, that is to
+say targets that are covered by the smallest number of sensors
\cite{berman04,zorbas2010solving}. Other approaches are based on mathematical
programming formulations~\cite{cardei2005energy,5714480,pujari2011high,Yang2014}
-and dedicated techniques (solving with a branch-and-bound algorithms available
-in optimization solver). The problem is formulated as an optimization problem
+and dedicated techniques (solving with a branch-and-bound algorithm available in
+optimization solver). The problem is formulated as an optimization problem
(maximization of the lifetime or number of cover sets) under target coverage and
-energy constraints. Column generation techniques, well-known and widely
+energy constraints. Column generation techniques, well-known and widely
practiced techniques for solving linear programs with too many variables, have
also been
-used~\cite{castano2013column,rossi2012exact,deschinkel2012column}. {\it In LiCO
- protocol, each leader, in each subregion, solves an integer program with
-the double objective consisting in minimizing the overcoverage and the
- undercoverage of the perimeter of each sensor.
-
-}
-
+used~\cite{castano2013column,rossi2012exact,deschinkel2012column}. {\it In the LiCO
+ protocol, each leader, in charge of a subregion, solves an integer program
+ which has a twofold objective: minimize the overcoverage and the undercoverage
+ of the perimeter of each sensor.}
%\noindent Recently, the coverage problem has been received a high attention, which concentrates on how the physical space could be well monitored after the deployment. Coverage is one of the Quality of Service (QoS) parameters in WSNs, which is highly concerned with power depletion~\cite{zhu2012survey}. Most of the works about the coverage protocols have been suggested in the literature focused on three types of the coverage in WSNs~\cite{mulligan2010coverage}: the first, area coverage means that each point in the area of interest within the sensing range of at least one sensor node; the second, target coverage in which a fixed set of targets need to be monitored; the third, barrier coverage refers to detect the intruders crossing a boundary of WSN. The work in this paper emphasized on the area coverage, so, some area coverage protocols have been reviewed in this section, and the shortcomings of reviewed approaches are being summarized.
%\uppercase{\textbf{Our Protocol}}. In this paper, a Lifetime Coverage Optimization Protocol, called (LiCO) in WSNs is suggested. The sensing field is divided into smaller subregions by means of divide-and-conquer method, and a LiCO protocol is distributed in each sensor in the subregion. The network lifetime in each subregion is divided into periods, each period includes 4 stages: Information Exchange, Leader election, decision based activity scheduling optimization, and sensing. The leaders are elected in an independent, asynchronous, and distributed way in all the subregions of the WSN. After that, energy-efficient activity scheduling mechanism based new optimization model is performed by each leader in the subregions. This optimization model is based on the perimeter coverage model in order to producing the optimal cover set of active sensors, which are taken the responsibility of sensing during the current period. LiCO protocol merges between two energy efficient mechanisms, which are used the main advantages of the centralized and distributed approaches and avoids the most of their disadvantages.
-
\section{ The LiCO Protocol Description}
\label{sec:The LiCO Protocol Description}
-\noindent In this section, we describe our Lifetime Coverage Optimization Protocol which is called LiCO in more detail.
+
+\noindent In this section, we describe in details our Lifetime Coverage
+Optimization protocol. First we present the assumptions we made and the models
+we considered (in particular the perimeter coverage one), second we describe the
+background idea of our protocol, and third we give the outline of the algorithm
+executed by each node.
+
% It is based on two efficient-energy mechanisms: the first, is partitioning the sensing field into smaller subregions, and one leader is elected for each subregion; the second, a sensor activity scheduling based new optimization model so as to produce the optimal cover set of active sensors for the sensing stage during the period. Obviously, these two mechanisms can be contribute in extend the network lifetime coverage efficiently.
%Before proceeding in the presentation of the main ideas of the protocol, we will briefly describe the perimeter coverage model and give some necessary assumptions and definitions.
-\subsection{ Assumptions and Models}
-\noindent A WSN consisting of $J$ stationary sensor nodes randomly and uniformly distributed in a bounded sensor field is considered. The wireless sensors are deployed in high density to ensure initially a high coverage ratio of the interested area. We assume that all the sensor nodes are homogeneous in terms of communication, sensing, and processing capabilities and heterogeneous in term of energy supply. The location information is available to the sensor node either through hardware such as embedded GPS or through location discovery algorithms. We assume that each sensor node can directly transmit its measurements to a mobile sink node. For example, a sink can be an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) flying regularly over the sensor field to collect measurements from sensor nodes. A mobile sink node collects the measurements and transmits them to the base station. We consider a boolean disk coverage model which is the most widely used sensor coverage model in the literature. Each sensor has a constant sensing range $R_s$. All space points within a disk centered at the sensor with the radius of the sensing range is said to be covered by this sensor. We also assume that the communication range $R_c \geq 2R_s$. In fact, Zhang and Zhou~\cite{Zhang05} proved that if the transmission range fulfills the previous hypothesis, a complete coverage of a convex area implies connectivity among the working nodes in the active mode.
-
-\indent LiCO protocol uses the perimeter-coverage model which states in ~\cite{huang2005coverage} as following: The sensor is said to be perimeter covered if all the points on its perimeter are covered by at least one sensor other than itself. Huang and Tseng in \cite{huang2005coverage} proves that a network area is $k$-covered if and only if each sensor in the network is $k$-perimeter-covered.
+\subsection{Assumptions and Models}
+\label{CI}
+
+\noindent A WSN consisting of $J$ stationary sensor nodes randomly and uniformly
+distributed in a bounded sensor field is considered. The wireless sensors are
+deployed in high density to ensure initially a high coverage ratio of the area
+of interest. We assume that all the sensor nodes are homogeneous in terms of
+communication, sensing, and processing capabilities and heterogeneous from
+energy provision point of view. The location information is available to a
+sensor node either through hardware such as embedded GPS or location discovery
+algorithms. We assume that each sensor node can directly transmit its
+measurements to a mobile sink node. For example, a sink can be an unmanned
+aerial vehicle (UAV) flying regularly over the sensor field to collect
+measurements from sensor nodes. A mobile sink node collects the measurements and
+transmits them to the base station. We consider a Boolean disk coverage model,
+which is the most widely used sensor coverage model in the literature, and all
+sensor nodes have a constant sensing range $R_s$. Thus, all the space points
+within a disk centered at a sensor with a radius equal to the sensing range are
+said to be covered by this sensor. We also assume that the communication range
+$R_c$ satisfies $R_c \geq 2 \cdot R_s$. In fact, Zhang and Zhou~\cite{Zhang05}
+proved that if the transmission range fulfills the previous hypothesis, a
+complete coverage of a convex area implies connectivity among active nodes.
+
+The LiCO protocol uses the same perimeter-coverage model as Huang and
+Tseng in~\cite{huang2005coverage}. It can be expressed as follows: a sensor is
+said to be perimeter covered if all the points on its perimeter are covered by
+at least one sensor other than itself. They proved that a network area is
+$k$-covered if and only if each sensor in the network is $k$-perimeter-covered (perimeter covered by at least $k$ sensors).
%According to this model, we named the intersections among the sensor nodes in the sensing field as intersection points. Instead of working with the coverage area, we consider for each sensor a set of intersection points which are determined by using perimeter-coverage model.
-Figure~\ref{pcmfig} illuminates the perimeter coverage of the sensor node $0$. On this figure, sensor $0$ has $9$ neighbors. We report for each sensor $i$ having an intersection with sensor $0$, the two intersection points, $iL$ for left point and $iR$ for right point. These intersections points subdivide the perimeter of the sensor $0$ (the perimeter of the disk covered by the sensor) into portions called segments.
+Figure~\ref{pcm2sensors}(a) shows the coverage of sensor node~$0$. On this
+figure, we can see that sensor~$0$ has nine neighbors and we have reported on
+its perimeter (the perimeter of the disk covered by the sensor) for each
+neighbor the two points resulting from intersection of the two sensing
+areas. These points are denoted for neighbor~$i$ by $iL$ and $iR$, respectively
+for left and right from neighbor point of view. The resulting couples of
+intersection points subdivide the perimeter of sensor~$0$ into portions called
+arcs.
\begin{figure}[ht!]
-\centering
-\includegraphics[width=75mm]{pcm.pdf}
-\caption{Perimeter coverage of sensor node 0}
-\label{pcmfig}
+ \centering
+ \begin{tabular}{@{}cr@{}}
+ \includegraphics[width=75mm]{pcm.jpg} & \raisebox{3.25cm}{(a)} \\
+ \includegraphics[width=75mm]{twosensors.jpg} & \raisebox{2.75cm}{(b)}
+ \end{tabular}
+ \caption{(a) Perimeter coverage of sensor node 0 and (b) finding the arc of
+ $u$'s perimeter covered by $v$.}
+ \label{pcm2sensors}
\end{figure}
-Figure~\ref{twosensors} demonstrates the way of locating the left and right points of a segment for a sensor node $u$ covered by a sensor node $v$. This figure assumes that the neighbor sensor node $v$ is located on the west of a sensor $u$. It is assumed that the two sensor nodes $v$ and $u$ are located in the positions $(v_x,v_y)$ and $(u_x,u_y)$, respectively. The distance between $v$ and $u$ is computed by $Dist(u,v) = \sqrt{\vert u_x - v_x \vert^2 + \vert u_y - v_y \vert^2}$. The angle $\alpha$ is computed through the formula $\alpha = arccos \left(\dfrac{Dist(u,v)}{2R_s} \right)$. So, the arch of sensor $u$ falling in the angle $[\pi - \alpha,\pi + \alpha]$, is said to be perimeter-covered by sensor node $v$.
-
-The left and right points of each segment are placed on the line segment $[0,2\pi]$. Figure~\ref{pcmfig} illustrates the segments for the 9 neighbors of sensor $0$. The points reported on the line segment $[0,2\pi]$ separates it in intervals. For each interval, we sum up the number of parts of segments, and we deduce a level of coverage for each interval. For instance, the interval delimited by the points $5L$ and $6L$ contains three parts of segments. That means that this part of the perimeter of the sensor $0$ may be covered by three sensors, sensor $0$ itself and sensors $2$ and $5$. The level of coverage of this interval may reach $3$ if all previously mentioned sensors are active. Let say that sensors $0$, $2$ and $5$ are involved in the coverage of this interval. The table in figure~\ref{expcm} summarizes the level of coverage for each interval and the sensors involved in.
+Figure~\ref{pcm2sensors}(b) describes the geometric information used to find the
+locations of the left and right points of an arc on the perimeter of a sensor
+node~$u$ covered by a sensor node~$v$. Node~$v$ is supposed to be located on the
+west side of sensor~$u$, with the following respective coordinates in the
+sensing area~: $(v_x,v_y)$ and $(u_x,u_y)$. From the previous coordinates we can
+compute the euclidean distance between nodes~$u$ and $v$: $Dist(u,v)=\sqrt{\vert
+ u_x - v_x \vert^2 + \vert u_y-v_y \vert^2}$, while the angle~$\alpha$ is
+obtained through the formula: $$\alpha = \arccos \left(\dfrac{Dist(u,v)}{2R_s}
+\right).$$ The arc on the perimeter of~$u$ defined by the angular interval $[\pi
+ - \alpha,\pi + \alpha]$ is said to be perimeter-covered by sensor~$v$.
+
+Every couple of intersection points is placed on the angular interval $[0,2\pi]$
+in a counterclockwise manner, leading to a partitioning of the interval.
+Figure~\ref{pcm2sensors}(a) illustrates the arcs for the nine neighbors of
+sensor $0$ and Figure~\ref{expcm} gives the position of the corresponding arcs
+in the interval $[0,2\pi]$. More precisely, we can see that the points are
+ordered according to the measures of the angles defined by their respective
+positions. The intersection points are then visited one after another, starting
+from the first intersection point after point~zero, and the maximum level of
+coverage is determined for each interval defined by two successive points. The
+maximum level of coverage is equal to the number of overlapping arcs. For
+example,
+between~$5L$ and~$6L$ the maximum level of coverage is equal to $3$
+(the value is highlighted in yellow at the bottom of Figure~\ref{expcm}), which
+means that at most 2~neighbors can cover the perimeter in addition to node $0$.
+Table~\ref{my-label} summarizes for each coverage interval the maximum level of
+coverage and the sensor nodes covering the perimeter. The example discussed
+above is thus given by the sixth line of the table.
+
+%The points reported on the line segment $[0,2\pi]$ separates it in intervals as shown in figure~\ref{expcm}. For example, for each neighboring sensor of sensor 0, place the points $\alpha^ 1_L$, $\alpha^ 1_R$, $\alpha^ 2_L$, $\alpha^ 2_R$, $\alpha^ 3_L$, $\alpha^ 3_R$, $\alpha^ 4_L$, $\alpha^ 4_R$, $\alpha^ 5_L$, $\alpha^ 5_R$, $\alpha^ 6_L$, $\alpha^ 6_R$, $\alpha^ 7_L$, $\alpha^ 7_R$, $\alpha^ 8_L$, $\alpha^ 8_R$, $\alpha^ 9_L$, and $\alpha^ 9_R$; on the line segment $[0,2\pi]$, and then sort all these points in an ascending order into a list. Traverse the line segment $[0,2\pi]$ by visiting each point in the sorted list from left to right and determine the coverage level of each interval of the sensor 0 (see figure \ref{expcm}). For each interval, we sum up the number of parts of segments, and we deduce a level of coverage for each interval. For instance, the interval delimited by the points $5L$ and $6L$ contains three parts of segments. That means that this part of the perimeter of the sensor $0$ may be covered by three sensors, sensor $0$ itself and sensors $2$ and $5$. The level of coverage of this interval may reach $3$ if all previously mentioned sensors are active. Let say that sensors $0$, $2$ and $5$ are involved in the coverage of this interval. Table~\ref{my-label} summarizes the level of coverage for each interval and the sensors involved in for sensor node 0 in figure~\ref{pcm2sensors}(a).
% to determine the level of the perimeter coverage for each left and right point of a segment.
-\begin{figure}[ht!]
-\centering
-\includegraphics[width=75mm]{twosensors.jpg}
-\caption{Locating the segment of $u$$\rq$s perimeter covered by $v$.}
-\label{twosensors}
-\end{figure}
-\begin{figure}[ht!]
+\begin{figure*}[t!]
\centering
-\includegraphics[width=75mm]{expcm.pdf}
-\caption{ Coverage levels for sensor node $0$.}
+\includegraphics[width=127.5mm]{expcm2.jpg}
+\caption{Maximum coverage levels for perimeter of sensor node $0$.}
\label{expcm}
-\end{figure}
+\end{figure*}
%For example, consider the sensor node $0$ in figure~\ref{pcmfig}, which has 9 neighbors. Figure~\ref{expcm} shows the perimeter coverage level for all left and right points of a segment that covered by a neighboring sensor nodes. Based on the figure~\ref{expcm}, the set of sensors for each left and right point of the segments illustrated in figure~\ref{ex2pcm} for the sensor node 0.
+\iffalse
+
\begin{figure}[ht!]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=90mm]{ex2pcm.jpg}
\label{ex2pcm}
\end{figure}
-%The optimization algorithm that used by LiCO protocol based on the perimeter coverage levels of the left and right points of the segments and worked to minimize the number of sensor nodes for each left or right point of the segments within each sensor node. The algorithm minimize the perimeter coverage level of the left and right points of the segments, while, it assures that every perimeter coverage level of the left and right points of the segments greater than or equal to 1.
+\fi
-In LiCO protocol, scheduling of sensor nodes'activities is formulated with an integer program based on coverage intervals and is detailed in section~\ref{cp}.
+ \begin{table}[h!]
+ \caption{Coverage intervals and contributing sensors for sensor node 0.}
+\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}
+\hline
+\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Left \\ point \\ angle~$\alpha$ \end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Interval \\ left \\ point\end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Interval \\ right \\ point\end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Maximum \\ coverage\\ level\end{tabular} & \multicolumn{5}{c|}{\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Set of sensors\\ involved \\ in coverage interval\end{tabular}} \\ \hline
+0.0291 & 1L & 2L & 4 & 0 & 1 & 3 & 4 & \\ \hline
+0.104 & 2L & 3R & 5 & 0 & 1 & 3 & 4 & 2 \\ \hline
+0.3168 & 3R & 4R & 4 & 0 & 1 & 4 & 2 & \\ \hline
+0.6752 & 4R & 1R & 3 & 0 & 1 & 2 & & \\ \hline
+1.8127 & 1R & 5L & 2 & 0 & 2 & & & \\ \hline
+1.9228 & 5L & 6L & 3 & 0 & 2 & 5 & & \\ \hline
+2.3959 & 6L & 2R & 4 & 0 & 2 & 5 & 6 & \\ \hline
+2.4258 & 2R & 7L & 3 & 0 & 5 & 6 & & \\ \hline
+2.7868 & 7L & 8L & 4 & 0 & 5 & 6 & 7 & \\ \hline
+2.8358 & 8L & 5R & 5 & 0 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 \\ \hline
+2.9184 & 5R & 7R & 4 & 0 & 6 & 7 & 8 & \\ \hline
+3.3301 & 7R & 9R & 3 & 0 & 6 & 8 & & \\ \hline
+3.9464 & 9R & 6R & 4 & 0 & 6 & 8 & 9 & \\ \hline
+4.767 & 6R & 3L & 3 & 0 & 8 & 9 & & \\ \hline
+4.8425 & 3L & 8R & 4 & 0 & 3 & 8 & 9 & \\ \hline
+4.9072 & 8R & 4L & 3 & 0 & 3 & 9 & & \\ \hline
+5.3804 & 4L & 9R & 4 & 0 & 3 & 4 & 9 & \\ \hline
+5.9157 & 9R & 1L & 3 & 0 & 3 & 4 & & \\ \hline
+\end{tabular}
-In the case of sensor node, which has a part of its sensing range outside the border of the WSN sensing field as in figure~\ref{ex4pcm}, the coverage level for this segment is set to $\infty$, and the corresponding interval will not be taken into account by the optimization algorithm.
-\begin{figure}[ht!]
+\label{my-label}
+\end{table}
+
+
+%The optimization algorithm that used by LiCO protocol based on the perimeter coverage levels of the left and right points of the segments and worked to minimize the number of sensor nodes for each left or right point of the segments within each sensor node. The algorithm minimize the perimeter coverage level of the left and right points of the segments, while, it assures that every perimeter coverage level of the left and right points of the segments greater than or equal to 1.
+
+In the LiCO protocol, scheduling of sensor nodes' activities is formulated with an
+integer program based on coverage intervals. The formulation of the coverage
+optimization problem is detailed in~section~\ref{cp}. Note that when a sensor
+node has a part of its sensing range outside the WSN sensing field, as in
+Figure~\ref{ex4pcm}, the maximum coverage level for this arc is set to $\infty$
+and the corresponding interval will not be taken into account by the
+optimization algorithm.
+
+\begin{figure}[h!]
\centering
-\includegraphics[width=75mm]{ex4pcm.jpg}
-\caption{Part of sensing range outside the the border of WSN sensing field.}
+\includegraphics[width=62.5mm]{ex4pcm.jpg}
+\caption{Sensing range outside the WSN's area of interest.}
\label{ex4pcm}
\end{figure}
%Figure~\ref{ex5pcm} gives an example to compute the perimeter coverage levels for the left and right points of the segments for a sensor node $0$, which has a part of its sensing range exceeding the border of the sensing field of WSN, and it has a six neighbors. In figure~\ref{ex5pcm}, the sensor node $0$ has two segments outside the border of the network sensing field, so the left and right points of the two segments called $-1L$, $-1R$, $-2L$, and $-2R$.
%\label{ex5pcm}
%\end{figure}
-
\subsection{The Main Idea}
-\noindent The area of interest can be divided into smaller areas called subregions and
-then our protocol will be implemented in each subregion simultaneously. LiCO protocol works into periods fashion as shown in figure~\ref{fig2}.
-\begin{figure}[ht!]
+
+\noindent The WSN area of interest is, in a first step, divided into regular
+homogeneous subregions using a divide-and-conquer algorithm. In a second step
+our protocol will be executed in a distributed way in each subregion
+simultaneously to schedule nodes' activities for one sensing period.
+
+As shown in Figure~\ref{fig2}, node activity scheduling is produced by our
+protocol in a periodic manner. Each period is divided into 4 stages: Information
+(INFO) Exchange, Leader Election, Decision (the result of an optimization
+problem), and Sensing. For each period there is exactly one set cover
+responsible for the sensing task. Protocols based on a periodic scheme, like
+LiCO, are more robust against an unexpected node failure. On the one hand, if
+a node failure is discovered before taking the decision, the corresponding sensor
+node will not be considered by the optimization algorithm. On the other
+hand, if the sensor failure happens after the decision, the sensing task of the
+network will be temporarily affected: only during the period of sensing until a
+new period starts, since a new set cover will take charge of the sensing task in
+the next period. The energy consumption and some other constraints can easily be
+taken into account since the sensors can update and then exchange their
+information (including their residual energy) at the beginning of each period.
+However, the pre-sensing phases (INFO Exchange, Leader Election, and Decision)
+are energy consuming, even for nodes that will not join the set cover to monitor
+the area.
+
+\begin{figure}[t!]
\centering
-\includegraphics[width=85mm]{Model.pdf}
-\caption{LiCO protocol}
+\includegraphics[width=80mm]{Model.pdf}
+\caption{LiCO protocol.}
\label{fig2}
\end{figure}
-Each period is divided into 4 stages: Information (INFO) Exchange, Leader Election, Optimization Decision, and Sensing. For each period there is exactly one set cover responsible for the sensing task. LiCO is more powerful against an unexpected node failure because it works in periods. On the one hand, if the node failure is discovered before taking the decision of the optimization algorithm, the sensor node would not involved to current stage, and, on the other hand, if the sensor failure takes place after the decision, the sensing task of the network will be temporarily affected: only during the period of sensing until a new period starts, since a new set cover will take charge of the sensing task in the next period. The energy consumption and some other constraints can easily be taken into account since the sensors can update and then exchange their information (including their residual energy) at the beginning of each period. However, the pre-sensing phases (INFO Exchange, Leader Election, and Decision) are energy consuming for some sensor nodes, even when they do not join the network to monitor the area.
-
-We define two types of packets to be used by LiCO protocol.
+We define two types of packets to be used by LiCO protocol:
%\begin{enumerate}[(a)]
\begin{itemize}
-\item INFO packet: sent by each sensor node to all the nodes inside a same subregion for information exchange.
-\item ActiveSleep packet: sent by the leader to all the nodes in its subregion to inform them to be Active or Sleep during the sensing phase.
+\item INFO packet: sent by each sensor node to all the nodes inside a same
+ subregion for information exchange.
+\item ActiveSleep packet: sent by the leader to all the nodes in its subregion
+ to transmit to them their respective status (stay Active or go Sleep) during
+ sensing phase.
\end{itemize}
%\end{enumerate}
-There are five status for each sensor node in the network :
+Five status are possible for a sensor node in the network:
%\begin{enumerate}[(a)]
\begin{itemize}
-\item LISTENING: Sensor is waiting for a decision (to be active or not)
-\item COMPUTATION: Sensor applies the optimization process as leader
-\item ACTIVE: Sensor is active
-\item SLEEP: Sensor is turned off
-\item COMMUNICATION: Sensor is transmitting or receiving packet
+\item LISTENING: waits for a decision (to be active or not);
+\item COMPUTATION: executes the optimization algorithm as leader to
+ determine the activities scheduling;
+\item ACTIVE: node is sensing;
+\item SLEEP: node is turned off;
+\item COMMUNICATION: transmits or receives packets.
\end{itemize}
%\end{enumerate}
%Below, we describe each phase in more details.
\subsection{LiCO Protocol Algorithm}
-The pseudo-code for LiCO Protocol is illustrated as follows:
+\noindent The pseudocode implementing the protocol on a node is given below.
+More precisely, Algorithm~\ref{alg:LiCO} gives a brief description of the
+protocol applied by a sensor node $s_k$ where $k$ is the node index in the WSN.
\begin{algorithm}[h!]
% \KwIn{all the parameters related to information exchange}
\If{ $RE_k \geq E_{th}$ }{
\emph{$s_k.status$ = COMMUNICATION}\;
- \emph{Send $INFO()$ packet to other nodes in the subregion}\;
- \emph{Wait $INFO()$ packet from other nodes in the subregion}\;
+ \emph{Send $INFO()$ packet to other nodes in subregion}\;
+ \emph{Wait $INFO()$ packet from other nodes in subregion}\;
\emph{Update K.CurrentSize}\;
\emph{LeaderID = Leader election}\;
\If{$ s_k.ID = LeaderID $}{
% \emph{ Determine the segment points using perimeter coverage model}\;
}
- \If{$ (s_k.ID $ is the same Previous Leader) AND (K.CurrentSize = K.PreviousSize)}{
+ \If{$ (s_k.ID $ is the same Previous Leader) And (K.CurrentSize = K.PreviousSize)}{
\emph{ Use the same previous cover set for current sensing stage}\;
}
\Else{
- \emph{ Update $a^j_{ik}$ and prepare data to Algorithm}\;
+ \emph{Update $a^j_{ik}$; prepare data for IP~Algorithm}\;
\emph{$\left\{\left(X_{1},\dots,X_{l},\dots,X_{K}\right)\right\}$ = Execute Integer Program Algorithm($K$)}\;
\emph{K.PreviousSize = K.CurrentSize}\;
}
\emph{$s_k.status$ = COMMUNICATION}\;
- \emph{Send $ActiveSleep()$ to each node $l$ in subregion} \;
+ \emph{Send $ActiveSleep()$ to each node $l$ in subregion}\;
\emph{Update $RE_k $}\;
}
\Else{
}
}
\Else { Exclude $s_k$ from entering in the current sensing stage}
-
-
\caption{LiCO($s_k$)}
\label{alg:LiCO}
-
\end{algorithm}
-\noindent Algorithm 1 gives a brief description of the protocol applied by each sensor node (denoted by $s_k$ for a sensor node indexed by $k$). In this algorithm, the K.CurrentSize and K.PreviousSize refer to the current size and the previous size of sensor nodes still alive in the subregion respectively.
-Initially, the sensor node checks its remaining energy $RE_k$, which must be greater than a threshold $E_{th}$ in order to participate in the current period. Each sensor node determines its position and its subregion based Embedded GPS or Location Discovery Algorithm. After that, all the sensors collect position coordinates, remaining energy, sensor node id, and the number of its one-hop live neighbors during the information exchange. The sensors inside a same region cooperate to elect a leader. The selection criteria for the leader in order of priority are: larger number of neighbors, larger remaining energy, and then in case of equality, larger index. Thereafter the leader collects information to formulate and solve the integer program which allows to construct the set of active sensors in the sensing stage.
-
+In this algorithm, K.CurrentSize and K.PreviousSize respectively represent the
+current number and the previous number of alive nodes in the subnetwork of the
+subregion. Initially, the sensor node checks its remaining energy $RE_k$, which
+must be greater than a threshold $E_{th}$ in order to participate in the current
+period. Each sensor node determines its position and its subregion using an
+embedded GPS or a location discovery algorithm. After that, all the sensors
+collect position coordinates, remaining energy, sensor node ID, and the number
+of their one-hop live neighbors during the information exchange. The sensors
+inside a same region cooperate to elect a leader. The selection criteria for the
+leader, in order of priority, are: larger number of neighbors, larger remaining
+energy, and then in case of equality, larger index. Once chosen, the leader
+collects information to formulate and solve the integer program which allows to
+construct the set of active sensors in the sensing stage.
%After the cooperation among the sensor nodes in the same subregion, the leader will be elected in distributed way, where each sensor node and based on it's information decide who is the leader. The selection criteria for the leader in order of priority are: larger number of neighbors, larger remaining energy, and then in case of equality, larger index. Thereafter, if the sensor node is leader, it will execute the perimeter-coverage model for each sensor in the subregion in order to determine the segment points which would be used in the next stage by the optimization algorithm of the LiCO protocol. Every sensor node is selected as a leader, it is executed the perimeter coverage model only one time during it's life in the network.
% The leader has the responsibility of applying the integer program algorithm (see section~\ref{cp}), which provides a set of sensors planned to be active in the sensing stage. As leader, it will send an Active-Sleep packet to each sensor in the same subregion to inform it if it has to be active or not. On the contrary, if the sensor is not the leader, it will wait for the Active-Sleep packet to know its state for the sensing stage.
-
\section{Lifetime Coverage problem formulation}
\label{cp}
-In this section, the coverage model is mathematically formulated.
-For convenience, the notations are described first.
-%Then the lifetime problem of sensor network is formulated.
-\noindent $S :$ the set of all sensors in the network.\\
-\noindent $A :$ the set of alive sensors within $S$.\\
-%\noindent $I :$ the set of segment points.\\
-\noindent $I_j :$ the set of coverage intervals (CI) for sensor $j$.\\
-\noindent $I_j$ refers to the set of intervals which have been defined for each sensor $j$ in section~\ref{sec:The LiCO Protocol Description}.
-\noindent For a coverage interval $i$, let $a^j_{ik}$ denote the indicator function of whether the sensor $k$ is involved in the coverage interval $i$ of sensor $j$, that is:
+\noindent In this section, the coverage model is mathematically formulated. We
+start with a description of the notations that will be used throughout the
+section.
+
+First, we have the following sets:
+\begin{itemize}
+\item $S$ represents the set of WSN sensor nodes;
+\item $A \subseteq S $ is the subset of alive sensors;
+\item $I_j$ designates the set of coverage intervals (CI) obtained for
+ sensor~$j$.
+\end{itemize}
+$I_j$ refers to the set of coverage intervals which have been defined according
+to the method introduced in subsection~\ref{CI}. For a coverage interval $i$,
+let $a^j_{ik}$ denotes the indicator function of whether sensor~$k$ is involved
+in coverage interval~$i$ of sensor~$j$, that is:
\begin{equation}
a^j_{ik} = \left \{
\begin{array}{lll}
- 1 & \mbox{if the sensor $k$ is involved in the } \\
+ 1 & \mbox{if sensor $k$ is involved in the } \\
& \mbox{coverage interval $i$ of sensor $j$}, \\
- 0 & \mbox{Otherwise.}\\
+ 0 & \mbox{otherwise.}\\
\end{array} \right.
%\label{eq12}
\notag
\end{equation}
-Note that $a^k_{ik}=1$ by definition of the interval.\\
+Note that $a^k_{ik}=1$ by definition of the interval.
%, where the objective is to find the maximum number of non-disjoint sets of sensor nodes such that each set cover can assure the coverage for the whole region so as to extend the network lifetime in WSN. Our model uses the PCL~\cite{huang2005coverage} in order to optimize the lifetime coverage in each subregion.
-%We defined some parameters, which are related to our optimization model. In our model, we consider binary variables $X_{k}$, which determine the activation of sensor $k$ in the sensing round $k$. .
-\noindent We consider binary variables $X_{k}$ ($X_k=1$ if the sensor $k$ is active or 0 otherwise), which determine the activation of sensor $k$ in the sensing phase. We define the integer variable $M^j_i$ which measures the undercoverage for the coverage interval $i$ for sensor $j$. In the same way, we define the integer variable $V^j_i$, which measures the overcoverage for the coverage interval $i$ for sensor $j$. If we decide to sustain a level of coverage equal to $l$ all along the perimeter of the sensor $j$, we have to ensure that at least $l$ sensors involved in each coverage interval $i$ ($i \in I_j$) of sensor $j$ are active. According to the previous notations, the number of active sensors in the coverage interval $i$ of sensor $j$ is given by $\sum_{k \in K} a^j_{ik} X_k$. To extend the network lifetime, the objective is to active a minimal number of sensors in each period to ensure the desired coverage level. As the number of alive sensors decreases, it becomes impossible to satisfy the level of coverage for all covergae intervals. We uses variables $M^j_i$ and $V^j_i$ as a measure of the deviation between the desired number of active sensors in a coverage interval and the effective number of active sensors. And we try to minimize these deviations, first to force the activation of a minimal number of sensors to ensure the desired coverage level, and if the desired level can not be completely satisfied, to reach a coverage level as close as possible that the desired one.
-
-
+%We defined some parameters, which are related to our optimization model. In our model, we consider binary variables $X_{k}$, which determine the activation of sensor $k$ in the sensing round $k$. .
+Second, we define several binary and integer variables. Hence, each binary
+variable $X_{k}$ determines the activation of sensor $k$ in the sensing phase
+($X_k=1$ if the sensor $k$ is active or 0 otherwise). $M^j_i$ is an integer
+variable which measures the undercoverage for the coverage interval $i$
+corresponding to sensor~$j$. In the same way, the overcoverage for the same
+coverage interval is given by the variable $V^j_i$.
+
+If we decide to sustain a level of coverage equal to $l$ all along the perimeter
+of sensor $j$, we have to ensure that at least $l$ sensors involved in each
+coverage interval $i \in I_j$ of sensor $j$ are active. According to the
+previous notations, the number of active sensors in the coverage interval $i$ of
+sensor $j$ is given by $\sum_{k \in A} a^j_{ik} X_k$. To extend the network
+lifetime, the objective is to activate a minimal number of sensors in each
+period to ensure the desired coverage level. As the number of alive sensors
+decreases, it becomes impossible to reach the desired level of coverage for all
+coverage intervals. Therefore we use variables $M^j_i$ and $V^j_i$ as a measure
+of the deviation between the desired number of active sensors in a coverage
+interval and the effective number. And we try to minimize these deviations,
+first to force the activation of a minimal number of sensors to ensure the
+desired coverage level, and if the desired level cannot be completely satisfied,
+to reach a coverage level as close as possible to the desired one.
%A system of linear constraints is imposed to attempt to keep the coverage level in each coverage interval to within specified PCL. Since it is physically impossible to satisfy all constraints simultaneously, each constraint uses a variable to either record when the coverage level is achieved, or to record the deviation from the desired coverage level. These additional variables are embedded into an objective function to be minimized.
%\noindent $V^j_i (overcoverage): $ integer value $\in \mathbb{N}$ for segment point $i$ of sensor $j$.
-
-
-
-
-\noindent Our coverage optimization problem can be mathematically formulated as follows: \\
+Our coverage optimization problem can then be mathematically expressed as follows:
%Objective:
-
-\begin{equation} \label{eq:ip2r}
+\begin{equation} %\label{eq:ip2r}
\left \{
\begin{array}{ll}
\min \sum_{j \in S} \sum_{i \in I_j} (\alpha^j_i ~ M^j_i + \beta^j_i ~ V^j_i )&\\
X_{k} \in \{0,1\}, \forall k \in A
\end{array}
\right.
+\notag
\end{equation}
-
-
-\noindent $\alpha^j_i$ and $\beta^j_i$ are nonnegative weights selected according to the
-relative importance of satisfying the associated
-level of coverage. For example, weights associated with coverage intervals of a specified part of a region
-may be given a relatively
-larger magnitude than weights associated
-with another region. This kind of integer program is inspired from the model developed for brachytherapy treatment planning for optimizing dose distribution \ref{0031-9155-44-1-012}. The integer program must be solved by the leader in each subregion at the beginning of each sensing phase, whenever the environment has changed (new leader, death of some sensors). Note that the number of constraints in the model is constant (constraints of coverage expressed for all sensors), whereas the number of variables $X_k$ decreases over periods, since we consider only alive sensors (sensors with enough energy to be alive during one sensing phase) in the model.
-
-
-\section{\uppercase{PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS}}
+$\alpha^j_i$ and $\beta^j_i$ are nonnegative weights selected according to the
+relative importance of satisfying the associated level of coverage. For example,
+weights associated with coverage intervals of a specified part of a region may
+be given by a relatively larger magnitude than weights associated with another
+region. This kind of integer program is inspired from the model developed for
+brachytherapy treatment planning for optimizing dose distribution
+\cite{0031-9155-44-1-012}. The integer program must be solved by the leader in
+each subregion at the beginning of each sensing phase, whenever the environment
+has changed (new leader, death of some sensors). Note that the number of
+constraints in the model is constant (constraints of coverage expressed for all
+sensors), whereas the number of variables $X_k$ decreases over periods, since we
+consider only alive sensors (sensors with enough energy to be alive during one
+sensing phase) in the model.
+
+\section{Performance Evaluation and Analysis}
\label{sec:Simulation Results and Analysis}
%\noindent \subsection{Simulation Framework}
\subsection{Simulation Settings}
%\label{sub1}
-In this section, we focus on the performance of LiCO protocol, which is distributed in each sensor node in the sixteen subregions of WSN. We use the same energy consumption model which is used in~\cite{Idrees2}. Table~\ref{table3} gives the chosen parameters setting.
+
+The WSN area of interest is supposed to be divided into 16~regular subregions
+and we use the same energy consumption than in our previous work~\cite{Idrees2}.
+Table~\ref{table3} gives the chosen parameters settings.
\begin{table}[ht]
-\caption{Relevant parameters for network initializing.}
+\caption{Relevant parameters for network initialization.}
% title of Table
\centering
% used for centering table
\hline
% inserts single horizontal line
-Sensing Field & $(50 \times 25)~m^2 $ \\
+Sensing field & $(50 \times 25)~m^2 $ \\
-Nodes Number & 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300~nodes \\
+WSN size & 100, 150, 200, 250, and 300~nodes \\
%\hline
-Initial Energy & 500-700~joules \\
+Initial energy & in range 500-700~Joules \\
%\hline
-Sensing Period & 60 Minutes \\
-$E_{th}$ & 36 Joules\\
+Sensing period & duration of 60 minutes \\
+$E_{th}$ & 36~Joules\\
$R_s$ & 5~m \\
%\hline
$\alpha^j_i$ & 0.6 \\
\label{table3}
% is used to refer this table in the text
\end{table}
-Simulations with five different node densities going from 100 to 250~nodes were
-performed considering each time 25~randomly generated networks, to obtain
-experimental results which are relevant. All simulations are repeated 25 times and the results are averaged. The nodes are deployed on a field of interest of $(50 \times 25)~m^2 $ in such a way that they cover the field with a high coverage ratio.
-
-Each node has an initial energy level, in Joules, which is randomly drawn in the
-interval $[500-700]$. If it's energy provision reaches a value below the
-threshold $E_{th}=36$~Joules, the minimum energy needed for a node to stay
-active during one period, it will no more participate in the coverage task. This
-value corresponds to the energy needed by the sensing phase, obtained by
-multiplying the energy consumed in active state (9.72 mW) by the time in seconds
-for one period (3600 seconds), and adding the energy for the pre-sensing phases.
-According to the interval of initial energy, a sensor may be active during at
-most 20 rounds.
-
-In the simulations, we introduce the following performance metrics to evaluate
-the efficiency of our approach:
+To obtain experimental results which are relevant, simulations with five
+different node densities going from 100 to 300~nodes were performed considering
+each time 25~randomly generated networks. The nodes are deployed on a field of
+interest of $(50 \times 25)~m^2 $ in such a way that they cover the field with a
+high coverage ratio. Each node has an initial energy level, in Joules, which is
+randomly drawn in the interval $[500-700]$. If it's energy provision reaches a
+value below the threshold $E_{th}=36$~Joules, the minimum energy needed for a
+node to stay active during one period, it will no more participate in the
+coverage task. This value corresponds to the energy needed by the sensing phase,
+obtained by multiplying the energy consumed in active state (9.72 mW) with the
+time in seconds for one period (3600 seconds), and adding the energy for the
+pre-sensing phases. According to the interval of initial energy, a sensor may
+be active during at most 20 periods.
+
+The values of $\alpha^j_i$ and $\beta^j_i$ have been chosen to ensure a good
+network coverage and a longer WSN lifetime. We have given a higher priority for
+the undercoverage (by setting the $\alpha^j_i$ with a larger value than
+$\beta^j_i$) so as to prevent the non-coverage for the interval~$i$ of the
+sensor~$j$. On the other hand, we have given a little bit lower value for
+$\beta^j_i$ so as to minimize the number of active sensor nodes which contribute
+in covering the interval.
+
+We introduce the following performance metrics to evaluate the efficiency of our
+approach.
%\begin{enumerate}[i)]
\begin{itemize}
-\item {{\bf Network Lifetime}:} we define the network lifetime as the time until
- the coverage ratio drops below a predefined threshold. We denote by
- $Lifetime_{95}$ (respectively $Lifetime_{50}$) the amount of time during which
- the network can satisfy an area coverage greater than $95\%$ (respectively
- $50\%$). We assume that the sensor network can fulfill its task until all its
- nodes have been drained of their energy or it becomes disconnected. Network
- connectivity is crucial because an active sensor node without connectivity
- towards a base station cannot transmit any information regarding an observed
- event in the area that it monitors.
-
-
-\item {{\bf Coverage Ratio (CR)}:} it measures how well the WSN is able to
- observe the area of interest. In our case, we discretized the sensor field
- as a regular grid, which yields the following equation to compute the
- coverage ratio:
-\begin{equation*}
-\scriptsize
-\mbox{CR}(\%) = \frac{\mbox{$n$}}{\mbox{$N$}} \times 100.
-\end{equation*}
-where $n$ is the number of covered grid points by active sensors of every
-subregions during the current sensing phase and $N$ is total number of grid
-points in the sensing field. In our simulations, we have a layout of $N = 51
-\times 26 = 1326$ grid points.
-
-
-\item{{\bf Number of Active Sensors Ratio(ASR)}:} It is important to have as few active nodes as possible in each round,
-in order to minimize the communication overhead and maximize the
-network lifetime. The Active Sensors Ratio is defined as follows:
-\begin{equation*}
-\scriptsize
-\mbox{ASR}(\%) = \frac{\sum\limits_{r=1}^R \mbox{$A_r$}}{\mbox{$S$}} \times 100 .
-\end{equation*}
-Where: $A_r^t$ is the number of active sensors in the subregion $r$ in the current sensing stage, $S$ is the total number of sensors in the network, and $R$ is the total number of the subregions in the network.
-
-
-
-\item {{\bf Energy Consumption}:} energy consumption (EC) can be seen as the
- total energy consumed by the sensors during $Lifetime_{95}$ or
- $Lifetime_{50}$, divided by the number of periods. Formally, the computation
- of EC can be expressed as follows:
+\item {\bf Network Lifetime}: the lifetime is defined as the time elapsed until
+ the coverage ratio falls below a fixed threshold. $Lifetime_{95}$ and
+ $Lifetime_{50}$ denote, respectively, the amount of time during which is
+ guaranteed a level of coverage greater than $95\%$ and $50\%$. The WSN can
+ fulfill the expected monitoring task until all its nodes have depleted their
+ energy or if the network is no more connected. This last condition is crucial
+ because without network connectivity a sensor may not be able to send to a
+ base station an event it has sensed.
+\item {\bf Coverage Ratio (CR)} : it measures how well the WSN is able to
+ observe the area of interest. In our case, we discretized the sensor field as
+ a regular grid, which yields the following equation:
\begin{equation*}
\scriptsize
- \mbox{EC} = \frac{\sum\limits_{m=1}^{M} \left( E^{\mbox{com}}_m+E^{\mbox{list}}_m+E^{\mbox{comp}}_m
- + E^{a}_m+E^{s}_m \right)}{M},
+ \mbox{CR}(\%) = \frac{\mbox{$n$}}{\mbox{$N$}} \times 100
\end{equation*}
-
-where $M$ corresponds to the number of periods. The total energy consumed by
-the sensors (EC) comes through taking into consideration four main energy factors. The first one, denoted $E^{\scriptsize \mbox{com}}_m$, represent the
-energy consumption spent by all the nodes for wireless communications during
-period $m$. $E^{\scriptsize \mbox{list}}_m$, the next factor, corresponds to
-the energy consumed by the sensors in LISTENING status before receiving the
-decision to go active or sleep in period $m$. $E^{\scriptsize \mbox{comp}}_m$
-refers to the energy needed by all the leader nodes to solve the integer program
-during a period. Finally, $E^a_{m}$ and $E^s_{m}$ indicate the energy consumed
-by the whole network in the sensing phase (active and sleeping nodes).
-
-
+ where $n$ is the number of covered grid points by active sensors of every
+ subregions during the current sensing phase and $N$ is total number of grid
+ points in the sensing field. In our simulations we have set a layout of
+ $N~=~51~\times~26~=~1326$~grid points.
+\item {\bf Active Sensors Ratio (ASR)}: a major objective of our protocol is to
+ activate nodes as few as possible, in order to minimize the communication
+ overhead and maximize the WSN lifetime. The active sensors ratio is defined as
+ follows:
+ \begin{equation*}
+ \scriptsize
+ \mbox{ASR}(\%) = \frac{\sum\limits_{r=1}^R \mbox{$|A_r^p|$}}{\mbox{$|S|$}} \times 100
+ \end{equation*}
+ where $|A_r^p|$ is the number of active sensors in the subregion $r$ in the
+ current sensing period~$p$, $|S|$ is the number of sensors in the network, and
+ $R$ is the number of subregions.
+\item {\bf Energy Consumption (EC)}: energy consumption can be seen as the total
+ energy consumed by the sensors during $Lifetime_{95}$ or $Lifetime_{50}$,
+ divided by the number of periods. The value of EC is computed according to
+ this formula:
+ \begin{equation*}
+ \scriptsize
+ \mbox{EC} = \frac{\sum\limits_{p=1}^{P} \left( E^{\mbox{com}}_p+E^{\mbox{list}}_p+E^{\mbox{comp}}_p
+ + E^{a}_p+E^{s}_p \right)}{P},
+ \end{equation*}
+ where $P$ corresponds to the number of periods. The total energy consumed by
+ the sensors comes through taking into consideration four main energy
+ factors. The first one, denoted $E^{\scriptsize \mbox{com}}_p$, represents the
+ energy consumption spent by all the nodes for wireless communications during
+ period $p$. $E^{\scriptsize \mbox{list}}_p$, the next factor, corresponds to
+ the energy consumed by the sensors in LISTENING status before receiving the
+ decision to go active or sleep in period $p$. $E^{\scriptsize \mbox{comp}}_p$
+ refers to the energy needed by all the leader nodes to solve the integer
+ program during a period. Finally, $E^a_{p}$ and $E^s_{p}$ indicate the energy
+ consumed by the WSN during the sensing phase (active and sleeping nodes).
\end{itemize}
%\end{enumerate}
\subsection{Simulation Results}
-In this section, we present the simulation results of LiCO protocol and the other protocols using a discrete event simulator OMNeT++ \cite{varga} to run different series of simulations. We implemented all protocols precisely on a laptop DELL with Intel Core~i3~2370~M (2.4 GHz) processor (2 cores) and the MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second) rate equal to 35330. To be consistent with the use of a sensor node with Atmels AVR ATmega103L microcontroller (6 MHz) and a MIPS rate equal to 6, the original execution time on the laptop is multiplied by 2944.2 $\left(\frac{35330}{2} \times \frac{1}{6} \right)$ so as to use it by the energy consumption model especially, after the computation and listening. Employing the modeling language ????\ref{}, the associated integer program instance is generated in a standard format, which is then read and solved by the optimization solver GLPK (GNU linear Programming Kit available in the public domain) \cite{glpk} through a Branch-and-Bound method.
-
-We compared LiCO protocol to three other approaches: the first, called DESK and proposed by ~\cite{ChinhVu} is a fully distributed coverage algorithm; the second, called GAF ~\cite{xu2001geography}, consists in dividing the region
-into fixed squares. During the decision phase, in each square, one sensor is
-chosen to remain active during the sensing phase; the third, DiLCO protocol~\cite{Idrees2} is an improved version on the work presented in ~\cite{idrees2014coverage}. Note that the LiCO protocol is based on the same framework as that of DiLCO. For these two protocols, the division of the region of interest in 16 subregions was chosen since it produces the best results. The difference between the two protocols relies on the use of the integer programming to provide the set of sensors that have to be actived in each sensing phase. Whereas DilCO protocol tries to satisfy the coverage of a set of primary points, LiCO protocol tries to reach a desired level of coverage $l$ for each sensor's perimeter. In the experimentations, we chose a level of coverage equal to 1 ($l=1$).
-\subsubsection{\textbf{Coverage Ratio}}
-Figure~\ref{fig333} shows the average coverage ratio for 200 deployed nodes obtained with the four methods.
-
+In order to assess and analyze the performance of our protocol we have
+implemented LiCO protocol in OMNeT++~\cite{varga} simulator. Besides LiCO, two
+other protocols, described in the next paragraph, will be evaluated for
+comparison purposes. The simulations were run on a laptop DELL with an Intel
+Core~i3~2370~M (2.4~GHz) processor (2 cores) whose MIPS (Million Instructions
+Per Second) rate is equal to 35330. To be consistent with the use of a sensor
+node based on Atmels AVR ATmega103L microcontroller (6~MHz) having a MIPS rate
+equal to 6, the original execution time on the laptop is multiplied by 2944.2
+$\left(\frac{35330}{2} \times \frac{1}{6} \right)$. The modeling language for
+Mathematical Programming (AMPL)~\cite{AMPL} is employed to generate the integer
+program instance in a standard format, which is then read and solved by the
+optimization solver GLPK (GNU linear Programming Kit available in the public
+domain) \cite{glpk} through a Branch-and-Bound method.
+
+As said previously, the LiCO is compared with three other approaches. The first
+one, called DESK, is a fully distributed coverage algorithm proposed by
+\cite{ChinhVu}. The second one, called GAF~\cite{xu2001geography}, consists in
+dividing the monitoring area into fixed squares. Then, during the decision
+phase, in each square, one sensor is chosen to remain active during the sensing
+phase. The last one, the DiLCO protocol~\cite{Idrees2}, is an improved version
+of a research work we presented in~\cite{idrees2014coverage}. Let us notice that
+LiCO and DiLCO protocols are based on the same framework. In particular, the
+choice for the simulations of a partitioning in 16~subregions was chosen because
+it corresponds to the configuration producing the better results for DiLCO. The
+protocols are distinguished from one another by the formulation of the integer
+program providing the set of sensors which have to be activated in each sensing
+phase. DiLCO protocol tries to satisfy the coverage of a set of primary points,
+whereas LiCO protocol objective is to reach a desired level of coverage for each
+sensor perimeter. In our experimentations, we chose a level of coverage equal to
+one ($l=1$).
+
+\subsubsection{\bf Coverage Ratio}
+
+Figure~\ref{fig333} shows the average coverage ratio for 200 deployed nodes
+obtained with the four protocols. DESK, GAF, and DiLCO provide a little better
+coverage ratio with respectively 99.99\%, 99.91\%, and 99.02\%, against 98.76\%
+produced by LiCO for the first periods. This is due to the fact that at the
+beginning DiLCO protocol puts in sleep status more redundant sensors (which
+slightly decreases the coverage ratio), while the three other protocols activate
+more sensor nodes. Later, when the number of periods is beyond~70, it clearly
+appears that LiCO provides a better coverage ratio and keeps a coverage ratio
+greater than 50\% for longer periods (15 more compared to DiLCO, 40 more
+compared to DESK). The energy saved by LiCO in the early periods allows later a
+substantial increase of the coverage performance.
+
\parskip 0pt
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.5] {R/CR.eps}
-\caption{The coverage ratio for 200 deployed nodes}
+\caption{Coverage ratio for 200 deployed nodes.}
\label{fig333}
\end{figure}
-DESK, GAF, and DiLCO provides a little better coverage ratio with 99.99\%, 99.91\%, and 99.02\% against 98.76\% produced by LiCO for the first periods. This is due to the fact that DiLCO protocol put in sleep mode redundant sensors using optimization (which lightly decreases the coverage ratio) while there are more active nodes in the case of others methods. But when the number of periods exceeds 70 periods, it clearly appears that LiCO provides a better coverage ratio and keeps a coverage ratio greater than 50\% for longer periods (15 more compared to DiLCO, 40 more compared to DESK).
-
%When the number of periods increases, coverage ratio produced by DESK and GAF protocols decreases. This is due to dead nodes. However, DiLCO protocol maintains almost a good coverage from the round 31 to the round 63 and it is close to LiCO protocol. The coverage ratio of LiCO protocol is better than other approaches from the period 64.
%because the optimization algorithm used by LiCO has been optimized the lifetime coverage based on the perimeter coverage model, so it provided acceptable coverage for a larger number of periods and prolonging the network lifetime based on the perimeter of the sensor nodes in each subregion of WSN. Although some nodes are dead, sensor activity scheduling based optimization of LiCO selected another nodes to ensure the coverage of the area of interest. i.e. DiLCO-16 showed a good coverage in the beginning then LiCO, when the number of periods increases, the coverage ratio decreases due to died sensor nodes. Meanwhile, thanks to sensor activity scheduling based new optimization model, which is used by LiCO protocol to ensure a longer lifetime coverage in comparison with other approaches.
-\subsubsection{\textbf{Active Sensors Ratio}}
-Having active nodes as few as possible in each period is essential in order to minimize the energy consumption and so maximize the network lifetime. Figure~\ref{fig444} shows the average active nodes ratio for 200 deployed nodes.
+\subsubsection{\bf Active Sensors Ratio}
+
+Having the less active sensor nodes in each period is essential to minimize the
+energy consumption and so maximize the network lifetime. Figure~\ref{fig444}
+shows the average active nodes ratio for 200 deployed nodes. We observe that
+DESK and GAF have 30.36 \% and 34.96 \% active nodes for the first fourteen
+rounds and DiLCO and LiCO protocols compete perfectly with only 17.92 \% and
+20.16 \% active nodes during the same time interval. As the number of periods
+increases, LiCO protocol has a lower number of active nodes in comparison with
+the three other approaches, while keeping a greater coverage ratio as shown in
+Figure \ref{fig333}.
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{R/ASR.eps}
-\caption{The active sensors ratio for 200 deployed nodes }
+\caption{Active sensors ratio for 200 deployed nodes.}
\label{fig444}
\end{figure}
-We observe that DESK and GAF have 30.36 \% and 34.96 \% active nodes for the first fourteen rounds and DiLCO and LiCO protocols compete perfectly with only 17.92 \% and 20.16 \% active nodes during the same time interval. As the number of periods increases, LiCO protocol has a lower number of active nodes in comparison with the three other approaches, while keeping of greater coverage ratio as shown in figure \ref{fig333}.
-
-\subsubsection{\textbf{The Energy Consumption}}
-We study the effect of the energy consumed by the WSN during the communication, computation, listening, active, and sleep modes for different network densities and compare it for the four approaches. Figures~\ref{fig3EC95} and \ref{fig3EC50} illustrate the energy consumption for different network sizes and for $Lifetime95$ and $Lifetime50$.
+\subsubsection{\bf Energy Consumption}
+
+We study the effect of the energy consumed by the WSN during the communication,
+computation, listening, active, and sleep status for different network densities
+and compare it for the four approaches. Figures~\ref{fig3EC}(a) and (b)
+illustrate the energy consumption for different network sizes and for
+$Lifetime95$ and $Lifetime50$. The results show that our LiCO protocol is the
+most competitive from the energy consumption point of view. As shown in both
+figures, LiCO consumes much less energy than the three other methods. One might
+think that the resolution of the integer program is too costly in energy, but
+the results show that it is very beneficial to lose a bit of time in the
+selection of sensors to activate. Indeed the optimization program allows to
+reduce significantly the number of active sensors and so the energy consumption
+while keeping a good coverage level.
\begin{figure}[h!]
-\centering
-\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{R/EC95.eps}
-\caption{The Energy Consumption per period with $Lifetime_{95}$}
-\label{fig3EC95}
-\end{figure}
-
-\begin{figure}[h!]
-\centering
-\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{R/EC50.eps}
-\caption{The Energy Consumption per period with $Lifetime_{50}$}
-\label{fig3EC50}
+ \centering
+ \begin{tabular}{@{}cr@{}}
+ \includegraphics[scale=0.475]{R/EC95.eps} & \raisebox{2.75cm}{(a)} \\
+ \includegraphics[scale=0.475]{R/EC50.eps} & \raisebox{2.75cm}{(b)}
+ \end{tabular}
+ \caption{Energy consumption per period for (a)~$Lifetime_{95}$ and (b)~$Lifetime_{50}$.}
+ \label{fig3EC}
\end{figure}
-The results show that our LiCO protocol is the most competitive from the energy consumption point of view. As shown in figures~\ref{fig3EC95} and \ref{fig3EC50}, LiCO consumes much less energy than the three other methods. One might think that the resolution of the integer program is too costly in energy, but the results show that it is very beneficial to lose a bit of time in the selection of sensors to activate. Indeed this optimization program allows to reduce significantly the number of active sensors and so the energy consumption while keeping a good coverage level.
%The optimization algorithm, which used by LiCO protocol, was improved the lifetime coverage efficiently based on the perimeter coverage model.
%The other approaches have a high energy consumption due to activating a larger number of sensors. In fact, a distributed method on the subregions greatly reduces the number of communications and the time of listening so thanks to the partitioning of the initial network into several independent subnetworks.
%\subsubsection{Execution Time}
-\subsubsection{\textbf{The Network Lifetime}}
-We observe the superiority of LiCO and DiLCO protocols against other two approaches in prolonging the network lifetime. In figures~\ref{fig3LT95} and \ref{fig3LT50}, network lifetime, $Lifetime95$ and $Lifetime50$ respectively, are illustrated for different network sizes.
+\subsubsection{\bf Network Lifetime}
+
+We observe the superiority of LiCO and DiLCO protocols in comparison against the
+two other approaches in prolonging the network lifetime. In
+Figures~\ref{fig3LT}(a) and (b), $Lifetime95$ and $Lifetime50$ are shown for
+different network sizes. As highlighted by these figures, the lifetime
+increases with the size of the network, and it is clearly the larger for DiLCO
+and LiCO protocols. For instance, for a network of 300~sensors and coverage
+ratio greater than 50\%, we can see on Figure~\ref{fig3LT}(b) that the lifetime
+is about two times longer with LiCO compared to DESK protocol. The performance
+difference is more obvious in Figure~\ref{fig3LT}(b) than in
+Figure~\ref{fig3LT}(a) because the gain induced by our protocols increases with
+the time, and the lifetime with a coverage of 50\% is far more longer than with
+95\%.
\begin{figure}[h!]
-\centering
-\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{R/LT95.eps}
-\caption{The Network Lifetime for $Lifetime_{95}$}
-\label{fig3LT95}
-\end{figure}
-
-
-\begin{figure}[h!]
-\centering
-\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{R/LT50.eps}
-\caption{The Network Lifetime for $Lifetime_{50}$}
-\label{fig3LT50}
+ \centering
+ \begin{tabular}{@{}cr@{}}
+ \includegraphics[scale=0.475]{R/LT95.eps} & \raisebox{2.75cm}{(a)} \\
+ \includegraphics[scale=0.475]{R/LT50.eps} & \raisebox{2.75cm}{(b)}
+ \end{tabular}
+ \caption{Network Lifetime for (a)~$Lifetime_{95}$ \\
+ and (b)~$Lifetime_{50}$.}
+ \label{fig3LT}
\end{figure}
-As highlighted by figures~\ref{fig3LT95} and \ref{fig3LT50}, the network lifetime obviously increases when the size of the network increases, and it is clearly larger with DiLCO and LiCO protocols compared with the two other methods. For instance, for a network of 300 sensors, the coverage ratio is greater than 50\% about two times longer with LiCO compared to DESK method.
+%By choosing the best suited nodes, for each period, by optimizing the coverage and lifetime of the network to cover the area of interest and by letting the other ones sleep in order to be used later in next rounds, LiCO protocol efficiently prolonged the network lifetime especially for a coverage ratio greater than $50 \%$, whilst it stayed very near to DiLCO-16 protocol for $95 \%$.
-%By choosing the best suited nodes, for each period, by optimizing the coverage and lifetime of the network to cover the area of interest and by letting the other ones sleep in order to be used later in next rounds, LiCO protocol efficiently prolonged the network lifetime especially for a coverage ratio greater than $50 \%$, whilst it stayed very near to DiLCO-16 protocol for $95 \%$.
-Figure~\ref{figLTALL} introduces the comparisons of the lifetime coverage for different coverage ratios for LiCO and DiLCO protocols.
-We denote by Protocol/50, Protocol/80, Protocol/85, Protocol/90, and Protocol/95 the amount of time during which the network can satisfy an area coverage greater than $50\%$, $80\%$, $85\%$, $90\%$, and $95\%$ respectively. Indeed there are applications that do not require a 100\% coverage of the surveillance region. LiCO might be an interesting method since it achieves a good balance between a high level coverage ratio and network lifetime.
+Figure~\ref{figLTALL} compares the lifetime coverage of our protocols for
+different coverage ratios. We denote by Protocol/50, Protocol/80, Protocol/85,
+Protocol/90, and Protocol/95 the amount of time during which the network can
+satisfy an area coverage greater than $50\%$, $80\%$, $85\%$, $90\%$, and $95\%$
+respectively, where Protocol is DiLCO or LiCO. Indeed there are applications
+that do not require a 100\% coverage of the area to be monitored. LiCO might be
+an interesting method since it achieves a good balance between a high level
+coverage ratio and network lifetime. LiCO always outperforms DiLCO for the three
+lower coverage ratios, moreover the improvements grow with the network
+size. DiLCO is better for coverage ratios near 100\%, but in that case LiCO is
+not so bad for the smallest network sizes.
\begin{figure}[h!]
-\centering
-\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{R/LTa.eps}
-\caption{The Network Lifetime for different coverage ratios}
+\centering \includegraphics[scale=0.5]{R/LTa.eps}
+\caption{Network lifetime for different coverage ratios.}
\label{figLTALL}
\end{figure}
-
%Comparison shows that LiCO protocol, which are used distributed optimization over the subregions, is the more relevance one for most coverage ratios and WSN sizes because it is robust to network disconnection during the network lifetime as well as it consume less energy in comparison with other approaches. LiCO protocol gave acceptable coverage ratio for a larger number of periods using new optimization algorithm that based on a perimeter coverage model. It also means that distributing the algorithm in each node and subdividing the sensing field into many subregions, which are managed independently and simultaneously, is the most relevant way to maximize the lifetime of a network.
-\section{\uppercase{Conclusion and Future Works}}
+\section{Conclusion and Future Works}
\label{sec:Conclusion and Future Works}
-In this paper we have studied the problem of lifetime coverage optimization in
-WSNs. We designed a protocol LiCO that schedules node activities (wakeup and sleep) with the objective of maintaining a good coverage ratio while maximizing the network lifetime. This protocol is applied on each subregion of the area of interest. It works in periods and is based on the resolution of an integer program to select the subset of sensors operating in active mode for each period. Our work is original in so far as it proposes for the first time an integer program scheduling the activation of sensors based on their perimeter coverage level instead of using a set of targets/points to be covered.
-
-
+In this paper we have studied the problem of lifetime coverage optimization in
+WSNs. We designed a new protocol, called Lifetime Coverage Optimization, which
+schedules nodes' activities (wake up and sleep stages) with the objective of
+maintaining a good coverage ratio while maximizing the network lifetime. This
+protocol is applied in a distributed way in regular subregions obtained after
+partitioning the area of interest in a preliminary step. It works in periods and
+is based on the resolution of an integer program to select the subset of sensors
+operating in active status for each period. Our work is original in so far as it
+proposes for the first time an integer program scheduling the activation of
+sensors based on their perimeter coverage level, instead of using a set of
+targets/points to be covered.
%To cope with this problem, the area of interest is divided into a smaller subregions using divide-and-conquer method, and then a LiCO protocol for optimizing the lifetime coverage in each subregion. LiCO protocol combines two efficient techniques: network
%leader election, which executes the perimeter coverage model (only one time), the optimization algorithm, and sending the schedule produced by the optimization algorithm to other nodes in the subregion ; the second, sensor activity scheduling based optimization in which a new lifetime coverage optimization model is proposed. The main challenges include how to select the most efficient leader in each subregion and the best schedule of sensor nodes that will optimize the network lifetime coverage
%periods, each period consists of four stages: (i) Information Exchange,
%(ii) Leader Election, (iii) a Decision based new optimization model in order to
%select the nodes remaining active for the last stage, and (iv) Sensing.
-We carried out severals simulations to evaluate the proposed protocol. The simulation results show that LiCO is is more energy-efficient than other approaches, with respect to lifetime, coverage ratio, active sensors ratio, and energy consumption.
-%Indeed, when dealing with large and dense WSNs, a distributed optimization approach on the subregions of WSN like the one we are proposed allows to reduce the difficulty of a single global optimization problem by partitioning it in many smaller problems, one per subregion, that can be solved more easily.
-
-We have identified different research directions that arise out of the work presented here.
-We plan to extend our framework such that the schedules are planned for multiple periods in advance.
+We carried out several simulations to evaluate the proposed protocol. The
+simulation results show that LiCO is more energy-efficient than other
+approaches, with respect to lifetime, coverage ratio, active sensors ratio, and
+energy consumption.
+%Indeed, when dealing with large and dense WSNs, a distributed optimization approach on the subregions of WSN like the one we are proposed allows to reduce the difficulty of a single global optimization problem by partitioning it in many smaller problems, one per subregion, that can be solved more easily. We have identified different research directions that arise out of the work presented here.
+We plan to extend our framework such that the schedules are planned for multiple
+sensing periods.
%in order to compute all active sensor schedules in only one step for many periods;
-We also want to improve our integer program to take into account the heterogeneous sensors, which do not have the same energy, processing, sensing and communication capabilities;
+We also want to improve our integer program to take into account heterogeneous
+sensors from both energy and node characteristics point of views.
%the third, we are investigating new optimization model based on the sensing range so as to maximize the lifetime coverage in WSN;
-Finally, our final goal is to implement our protocol using a sensor-testbed to evaluate their performance in real world applications.
-
-\section*{\uppercase{Acknowledgements}}
-\noindent As a Ph.D. student, Ali Kadhum IDREES would like to gratefully acknowledge the University of Babylon - IRAQ for the financial support and Campus France for the received support.
+Finally, it would be interesting to implement our protocol using a
+sensor-testbed to evaluate it in real world applications.
-
+\section*{Acknowledgments}
+\noindent As a Ph.D. student, Ali Kadhum IDREES would like to gratefully
+acknowledge the University of Babylon - IRAQ for financial support and Campus
+France for the received support. This work has also been supported by the Labex
+ACTION.
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