%% %%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+% declaration of the new block
+\algblock{ParFor}{EndParFor}
+% customising the new block
+\algnewcommand\algorithmicparfor{\textbf{parfor}}
+\algnewcommand\algorithmicpardo{\textbf{do}}
+\algnewcommand\algorithmicendparfor{\textbf{end\ parfor}}
+\algrenewtext{ParFor}[1]{\algorithmicparfor\ #1\ \algorithmicpardo}
+\algrenewtext{EndParFor}{\algorithmicendparfor}
\chapter{Parallel Architectures and Iterative Applications}
\label{ch1}
%% Introduction
with each new generation of microprocessors, users of sequential applications expected that these applications should run faster over them than over the previous ones.
Nowadays, this idea is no longer valid since recent releases of microprocessors have many computing units that are embedded in one chip and programs are running only over one computing unit sequentially.
Indeed, new applications have significantly improved their performance over new architectures in parallel compared to traditional applications.
-To improve the performance of applications, they should parallelized and executed simultaneously over all available computing units.
-Furthermore, the concurrency revolution has been referred primarily to software revolution, that all applications are amenable to parallelization over the new parallel architectures \cite{ref51}.
-Moreover, parallel applications should be optimized to the parallel hardware that must execute them.
+To improve the performance of applications, they should be parallelized and executed simultaneously over all available computing units.
+Moreover, parallel applications should be optimized to the parallel hardwares that will execute them.
Therefore, parallel applications and parallel architectures are closely tied together.
-For example, the energy consumption of one parallel system mainly depends on both: (1) parallel applications and (2) parallel architectures. Indeed, an energy consumption model or any measurement system depends on many specifications, some of them are related to the parallel hardware features such as: (1) the frequency of processor, (2) the power consumption of processor and (3) the communication model. Others are relied to the parallel application such as: (1) the computation time and (2) the communication time of the application.
+For example, the energy consumption of one parallel system mainly depends on both: (1) parallel applications and (2) parallel architectures. Indeed, an energy consumption model or any measurement system depends on many specifications, some of them are related to the parallel hardware features such as: (1) the frequency of processor, (2) the power consumption of processor and (3) the communication model. Others rely to the parallel application such as: (1) the computation time and (2) the communication time of the application.
-This work is focused on studying the iterative parallel applications, where different parallel architectures
+This work of this thesis is focused on studying the iterative parallel applications, where different parallel architectures
are used to execute them in parallel, while optimizing their energy consumptions.
In this context, this chapter gives a brief overview about parallel hardware architectures and parallel iterative applications. Also, it discusses an energy model proposed by other authors used to measure the energy consumption of these applications.
-The reminder of this chapter is organized as follows: section \ref{ch1:2} describes different types of parallelism and different types of parallel platforms. It also explains some models of parallel programming. Section \ref{ch1:3} discusses both types of parallel iterative methods, synchronous and asynchronous one and comparing them. Section \ref{ch1:4}, presents a well accepted energy model from the state of the art that can be used to measure the energy consumption of parallel iterative applications when the frequency of processor is changed. Finally, section \ref{ch1:5} summarizes this chapter.
+The reminder of this chapter is organized as follows: section \ref{ch1:2} describes different types of parallelism and different types of parallel platforms. It also explains some models of parallel programming. Section \ref{ch1:3} discusses both types of parallel iterative methods, synchronous and asynchronous ones and comparing them. Section \ref{ch1:4}, presents a well accepted energy model from the state of the art that can be used to measure the energy consumption of parallel iterative applications when the frequency of processor is changed. Finally, section \ref{ch1:5} summarizes this chapter.
\section{Parallel Computing Architectures}
\label{ch1:2}
The process of executing the calculations simultaneously over many computing units is called parallel computing.
Its main principle refers to the ability of dividing a large problem into smaller sub-problems that can be solved at the same time \cite{ref2}.
-Solving the sub-problems of one main problem in parallel computing is carried out in parallel on multiple processors.
+Solving the sub-problems of one main problem in parallel is carried out in parallel on multiple processors.
Indeed, a parallel architecture can be defined as a computing system that is composed of many processing elements, which are connected via a network model and some tools that are used to make the processing units work together \cite{ref1}.
In other words, the parallel computing architecture consists of software and hardware resources.
Hardware resources are: (1) the processing units, (2) the memory model and (3) the network system that connects them. Software resources include (1) the specific operating system, (2) the programming language and (3) the compile or the runtime libraries. Besides, parallel computing may have different levels of parallelism that can be performed in a software or a hardware level. Five types of parallelism levels have been defined as follows:
\begin{itemize}
-\item \textbf{Bit-level parallelism (BLP)}: The appearance of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) in 1970s has been viewed as the first step towards parallel computing. It is used to increase the number of bits in the word size which is processed by a processor as illustrated in the figure~\ref{fig:ch1:1}. For many successive years, the number of bits have been increased starting from 4 bit to 64 bit microprocessors. For example nowadays, the recent x86-64 architecture is the most common architecture. For a given application, the biggest the word size is the lesser in instructions to be executed by the processor.
+\item \textbf{Bit-level parallelism (BLP)}: The appearance of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) in 1970s has been viewed as the first step towards parallel computing. It is used to increase the number of bits in the word size which is processed by a processor as illustrated in the figure~\ref{fig:ch1:1}. For many successive years, the number of bits have been increased starting from 4 bit to 64 bit microprocessors. For example nowadays, the recent x86-64 architecture is the most common architecture. For a given application, the biggest the word size is the lesser instructions to be executed by the processor.
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centering
\label{fig:ch1:1}
\end{figure}
-\item \textbf{Data-level parallelism (DLP)}: Data parallelism is the process of distributing data vector between parallel processors, where each one performs the same operations on its data sub-vector. Therefore, many arithmetic operations can be performed on the same data vector in a simultaneous manner. This type of parallelism can be used in many programs, especially in the area of scientific computing. Usually, data-parallel operations are only provided to arrays operations, for example, as shown in figure \ref{fig:ch1:2}. Vector multiplication, image and signal processing can be considered as an example of applications that use this type of parallelism.
+\item \textbf{Data-level parallelism (DLP)}: Data parallelism is the process of distributing data vector between processors, where each one performs the same operations on its data sub-vector. Therefore, many arithmetic operations can be performed on the same data vector in a simultaneous manner. This type of parallelism can be used in many programs, especially in the area of scientific computing. Usually, data-parallel operations are only provided to arrays operations, for example, as shown in figure \ref{fig:ch1:2}. Vector multiplication, image and signal processing can be considered as an example of applications that use this type of parallelism.
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centering
\item \textbf{Thread-level parallelism (TLP)}: It is also known as task-level parallelism.
According to Moore’s law \cite{ref9}, the number of transistors in a processor doubles each two years to increase its performance. Cache and main memory sizes must also be increased in order to avoid data bottlenecks.
However, increasing the number of transistors may generate some issues: (1) the first issue is related to drastically increase in cache size, which leads to a large access time. (2) the second issue is related to the huge increase in the number of the transistors per CPU, which can increase significantly the heat dissipation.
-Thus, CPUs constructors couldn't increase the frequency of the processor any more due to these reasons. Therefore, they created multi-core processor that programmers subdivided their programs into multiple tasks which can be then executed in parallel over them to improve the performance, see figure~\ref{fig:ch1:4}. Each processor can have individual threads or multiple threads dedicated to each task. A thread can be defined as a part of the parallel program that shares processor resources with other threads.
+Thus, CPUs constructors couldn't increase the frequency of the processor anymore due to these reasons. Therefore, they created multi-core processors. With multi-core processors, programmers subdivide their programs into multiple tasks which can be then executed in parallel over them to improve the performance, see figure~\ref{fig:ch1:4}. Each processor can have individual threads or multiple threads dedicated to each task. A thread can be defined as a part of the parallel program that shares processor resources with other threads.
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centering
Sequential~execution~time = \sum_{i=1}^{N} T_i
\end{equation}
-Whereas, if tasks are executed synchronously over multiple processing units in parallel, the execution time of the program is defined as the execution time of the task that has maximum execution time (the slowest task) as follows:
+Whereas, if tasks are executed synchronously over multiple processing units in parallel, the execution time of the program is defined as the execution time of the task that has maximum the execution time (the slowest task) as follows:
\begin{equation}
\label{ch1:eq2}
The main goal behind using a parallel architecture is to solve a big problem faster.
A collection of processing elements must work together to compute the final solution of the main problem. Many different architectures have been proposed
and classified according to parallelism in instruction and data
-streams. In 1966, Michel Flynn has proposed a simple model to categorize all computers models that still useful until now \cite{ref10}. His taxonomy is based on considering the data and the operations performed on this data to classify the computing system into four types as follows:
+streams. In 1966, Michel Flynn has proposed a simple model to categorize all computers models that is still useful until now \cite{ref10}. His taxonomy is based on considering the data and the operations performed on this data to classify the computing systems into four types as follows:
\begin{itemize}
The first version of MPI was designed by a group of researchers in
1991. It is a specification and have been implemented in many programming
languages such as C, Fortran and
- Java. Programmes written in these languages are compiled MPI with ordinary compilers.
- The functions are not only limited to peer to peer operations for
+ Java.
+ The MPI functions are not only limited to point to point operations for
sending and receiving messages, there are many others collective
- operations such as gathering and reduction operations. Furthermore, it has an
- asynchronous point to point operations, which make the computations
- to overlap with communications. While MPI is not designed for grid,
- \textbf{MPICH} is widely used as the communication interface for grid applications
- \cite{ref52}.
- In this work, MPI was used in programming our algorithms and applications which are
- implemented in both Fortran and C programming languages.
+ operations such as gathering and reduction operations.
+ While MPI is not designed for grid,
+ it is widely used as the communication interface for grid applications
+ \cite{ref52}.
+ In this work, MPI was used in programming our algorithms and applications which are
+ implemented in both Fortran and C programming languages.
\end{itemize}
\item \textbf{GPU programming models}
\begin{itemize}
\item \textbf{CUDA} \cite{ref37} Modern graphical processing units (GPUs) have increased its chip-level
- parallelism. Current NVIDIA GPUs consist of many-cores processor that have
+ parallelism. Current NVIDIA GPUs consist of many-cores processors that have
thousands of cores. To make their GPUs a general purpose computing processor in 2007
- the NVIDIA has developed CUDA as parallel programming language.
+ the NVIDIA has developed CUDA a parallel programming language.
A CUDA program has two parts: host and kernels. The host code is sequentially
executed over the CPU.
While, the kernels are executed in parallel over the GPUs.
\item \textbf{OpenCL}\cite{ref38} is for Open Computing Language. It is a parallel
programming language dedicated for heterogeneous platforms composed
- of CPUs and GPUs. The first release of this language has initially developed by Apple
- in 2008. Functions that are executed over OpenCL devices are called kernels.
- They are portable and can be execute on any computing hardware such as CPU or GPU cores.
+ of CPUs and GPUs. The first release of this language has initially been developed
+ by Apple in 2008. Functions that are executed over OpenCL devices are called kernels.
+ They are portable and can be executed on any computing hardware such as CPU or GPU
+ cores.
\section{Iterative Methods}
\label{ch1:3}
-In this work, we are interesting in solving linear equations which are well known in the scientific area.
-It is generally expressed in the following form:
+In this work, we are interested in solving system of linear equations which are very common in the scientific field. A system of linear equations can be expressed as follows:
+
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:linear}
\end{equation}
Where $A$ is a two dimensional matrix of size $N \times N$, $x$ is the unknown vector,
-and $b$ is a vector of constant, each of size $N$. There are two types of solution methods to solve this linear system.
-The first type of methods is called \textbf{Direct methods}, which consist of a finite number of steps depending on the
-size of the linear system to give the exact solution. If the problem size is very big, these methods are expensive or their
-solutions are impossible in some cases. The second type is called \textbf{Iterative methods}, which computes
-the same block of operations several times, starting from the initial vector until reaching the acceptable
-approximation of the exact solution. However, it can be effectively applied in parallel. Moreover, iterative methods can be used to solve both linear and non-linear equations.
+and $b$ is a vector of constant, each of size $N$. There are two types of solution methods to solve this linear system: the \textbf{direct} and the \textbf{iterative methods}.
+A direct method executes a finite number of steps, depending on the
+size of the linear system and gives the exact solution of the system. If the problem is very big, this method is expensive or its
+solution is impossible in some cases. On the other hand, methods with iterations execute the same block of instructions many times. The number of iterations can be predefined or the application iterates until a criterion is satisfied. Iterative methods are methods with iterations that start from an initial guess and
+improve successively the solution until reaching an acceptable approximation of the exact solution.
+These methods are well adapted for large systems and can be easily parallelized.
-The sequential iterative algorithm is typically organized as a series of steps essentially of the form:
+A sequential iterative algorithm is typically organized as a series of steps essentially of the form:
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:iter}
\label{eq:res}
R = \max_{i=1, \dots, N} \abs{X_i^{(k+1)} - X_i^k}
\end{equation}
-Where $N$ is the size of the vector $X$. Then, the iterative sequential algorithm stops iterating if the maximum error between the last two successive solution vectors, as in \ref{eq:res}, is less than or equal a threshold value. Otherwise, it replaces the new vector $X^{(k+1)}$ with the old vector $X^k$ and computes a new iteration.
+Where $N$ is the size of the vector $X$. Then, the iterative sequential algorithm stops iterating if the maximum error between the last two successive solution vectors, as in \ref{eq:res}, is less than or equal to a threshold value. Otherwise, it replaces the new vector $X^{(k+1)}$ with the old vector $X^k$ and computes a new iteration.
+
\subsection{Synchronous Parallel Iterative method}
\label{ch1:3:1}
\State Initialize the sub-vectors $(X_1^0,\dots,X_M^0)$
\For {$k:=1$ step $1$ to \textit{convergence}}
- \For {$i:=1$ to \textit{M}}
+ \ParFor {$i:=1$ to \textit{M}}
\State $X^{(k+1)} = F(X^k)$
- \EndFor
+ \EndParFor
\EndFor
The algorithm \ref{spia} represents the synchronous parallel iterative algorithm. Similarly to
the sequential iterative algorithm \ref{spia}, this algorithm stops iterating when the convergence condition is satisfied.
+We consider that the keyword \textbf{parfor} is used to make a for loop in parallel.
-This algorithm needs to satisfy some convergence condition which is called the global convergence condition. In order to detect the global convergence overall computing units, first we need to compute
+This algorithm needs to satisfy a convergence condition which is called the global convergence condition. In order to detect the global convergence overall computing units, first we need to compute
at each iteration the local residual. Then at the end of each iteration, all the local residuals from $M$ computing units must be reduced to one maximum value represented by the global residual.
For example, in MPI this operation is directly applied using a high level communication procedure called \textit{AllReduce}. The goal of this communication procedure is to apply the reduction operation on all local residuals computed by the computing units.
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.75]{fig/ch1/sisc.pdf}
-\caption{The SICS Model}
+\caption{The SISC Model}
\label{fig:ch1:15}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h!]
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.75]{fig/ch1/siac.pdf}
-\caption{The SIAS Model}
+\caption{The SIAC Model}
\label{fig:ch1:16}
\end{figure}
-Furthermore, the communications of the synchronous iterative algorithm can be replaced by asynchronous ones. The resulting algorithm is called Synchronous Iteration and Asynchronous
-Communication and denoted as \textbf{SIAC} algorithm. The main principle of this algorithm is to use a synchronized iterations while exchanging the data between the computing units asynchronously.
-Moreover, each computing unit doesn't need to wait for its neighbours to receive the data messages
+Furthermore, the communications of the synchronous iterative algorithm can be replaced by asynchronous ones. The resulting algorithm is called Synchronous Iterations with Asynchronous
+Communications and denoted as \textbf{SIAC} algorithm. The main principle of this algorithm is to use synchronize iterations while exchanging the data between the computing units asynchronously.
+Moreover, each computing unit does not need to wait for its neighbours to receive the data messages
that it has sent, while it only waits to receive data from them. This can be implemented with SISC algorithm that is programmed in MPI by replacing the synchronous send of the messages by asynchronous ones, while keeping
the synchronous receive. The only advantage of this technique is to reduce the idle times between iterations by allowing the communications to overlap partially
with computations, see figure \ref{fig:ch1:16}. The idle times are not totally eliminated because the
\subsection{Asynchronous Parallel Iterative method}
\label{ch1:3:2}
-The asynchronous iterations mean that all processors perform their iterations without considering the works of other processors. Each processor doesn't have to wait to receive
-data messages from other processors and continues to compute the next iteration using the last data received from neighbours. Therefore, there are no idle times at all between the iterations as in figure \ref{fig:ch1:17}. This figure indicates that fast processors can perform more iterations than the slower ones at the same time.
+The asynchronous iterations mean that all processors perform their iterations without considering the works of other processors. Each processor does not have to wait to receive
+data messages from other processors and continues to compute the next iteration using the last data received from neighbours. Therefore, there are no idle times at all between the iterations as in Figure \ref{fig:ch1:17}. This figure indicates that fast processors can perform more iterations than the slower ones at the same time.
The asynchronous iterative algorithm that uses an asynchronous communications is called \textbf{AIAC} algorithm. Similarly to the SISC algorithm, the AIAC algorithm subdivides the global vectors $X$ into $M$ sub-vectors between the computing units. The main difference between the two algorithms is that these $M$ sub-vectors are not updated at each iteration in the AIAC algorithm because both iterations and communications are asynchronous.
\label{fig:ch1:17}
\end{figure}
-The global convergence detection of the asynchronous parallel iterative is problem dependent process.
+The global convergence detection of the asynchronous parallel iterative is not trivial.
For more information about the convergence detection techniques of the asynchronous iterative methods, refer to \cite{ref40,ref41,ref42,ref43} for more details.
to receive the data messages from its neighbours to compute the next iteration.
\item Less sensitive for the heterogeneous communications and nodes' computing powers. In heterogeneous
- platform, the fast nodes don't need to wait for the slow ones, and they can perform more iterations
+ platform, the fast nodes do not need to wait for the slow ones, and they can perform more iterations
compared to them. While in the traditional synchronous iterative methods, the fast computing nodes perform
the same number of iterations as the slow ones because they are blocked.
\item In the grid architecture, the local clusters from different sites are
connected via a slow network with a high latency. The use of the AIAC model
reduces the delay of sending the data message over such slow network link and thus the performance
- of the applications is not effected.
+ of the applications is not affected.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
-In our works, we are interested in optimizing the energy consumption of parallel iterative methods running over
-clusters or grids.
+In work of this thesis, we are interested in optimizing the energy consumption of parallel iterative
+methods running over clusters or grids.
There are two drawbacks in this energy model as follows:
\begin{itemize}
-\item The message passing iterative program consists of the communication and computation times.
+\item The message passing iterative program consists of communication and computation times.
This energy model assumes that the dynamic power is consumed during both these times.
While the processor during the communication times remains idle and only consumes the static
power, for more details see \cite{ref53}.
In the second section, the two types of parallel iterative methods: synchronous and asynchronous ones were presented. The synchronous iterative methods are well adapted to local homogeneous clusters with a high speed network link, while the asynchronous iterative methods are more suited to the distributed heterogeneous clusters.
Finally, in the third section, an energy consumption model proposed in the state of the art to measure the energy consumption of parallel applications was explained. This model cannot be used for all types of parallel architectures. Since, it assumes that the dynamic power is consumed during both of the communication and computation times, while the processor involved remains idle during the communication times and only consumes the static power. Moreover, it is not well adapted to heterogeneous architectures when there are different types of processors, that consume different dynamic and static powers.
-For these reasons, in the next chapters of this thesis new energy consumption models are developed to effectively predict the energy consumed by parallel iterative methods running on both homogeneous and heterogeneous architectures. Additionally, these energy models are used in a method optimizes both energy consumption and performance of an iterative message passing application.
\ No newline at end of file
+For these reasons, in the next chapters of this thesis new energy consumption models are developed to efficiently predict the energy consumed by parallel iterative methods running on both homogeneous and heterogeneous architectures. Additionally, these energy models are used in a method that optimizes both energy consumption and performance of an iterative message passing application.
\ No newline at end of file
