\usepackage[pdftex,final]{graphicx}
% Extension pour les liens intra-documents (tagged PDF)
% et l'affichage correct des URL (commande \url{http://example.com})
-\usepackage{hyperref}
+%\usepackage{hyperref}
% Extension pour que plus de titres apparaissent dans la table des matieres
% (table des matieres, bibliographie, index).
%\usepackage{tocbibind}
\begin{IEEEkeywords}
Mapping algorithms; Distributed clusters; Parallel iterative
-asynchronous algorithms; Heterogeneous distributed architectures
+asynchronous algorithms; Heterogeneous distributed architectures.
\end{IEEEkeywords}
In order to efficiently use this massive distributed computation
power, numerous numerical algorithms have been modified. These
algorithms can be broadly classified into two categories. First,
-\textit{Direct methods}, which give the exact solution of the problem
+\textit{direct methods}, which give the exact solution of the problem
using a finite number of operations (e.g. Cholesky,
-LU\ldots. These methods cannot be applied to all kinds of
-numerical problems. In general, they are not well adapted to very
+LU\dots). These methods cannot be applied to all kinds of
+numerical problems. Generally, they are not well adapted to very
large problems. Then \textit{iterative methods}, that repeat the same
instructions until a desired approximation of the solution is reached
-- we say that the algorithm has converged. Iterative algorithms
constitute the only known approach to solving some kinds of problems
-and they are easier to parallelize than direct methods. The Jacobi or
+and are easier to parallelize than direct methods. The Jacobi or
Conjugate Gradient algorithms are examples of such iterative
methods.
% \myitemize{5}
In the rest of this paper we only focus on iterative methods. Now to
parallelize this kind of algorithm, two classes of parallel iterative
-models can be described. In \textit{The synchronous iteration model}
+models can be described. In the \textit{synchronous iteration model}
after each iteration a node sends its results to its neighbors and
-waits for the reception of all dependency messages from its neighbors
+waits for the reception of all dependency messages from them
to start the next iteration. This results in large idle times and is
equivalent to a global synchronization of nodes after each
iteration. These synchronizations can strongly penalize the overall
the computation will be blocked.
\begin{figure}[h!]
- \vspace{0.1cm}
\centering
\includegraphics[width=7.4cm]{images/IACA}
\caption{Two processors computing in the Asynchronous Iteration - Asynchronous Communication (AIAC) model}
\label{fig:AIAC}
\end{figure}
+\vspace{-0.2cm}
-
-In the\textit{The asynchronous iteration model} a node sends its
+In the \textit{asynchronous iteration model} a node sends its
results to its neighbors and starts immediately the next iteration
with the last received data. These data could be data from previous
iterations, because the most recent data has not arrived in time or
architectures, in the rest of this study we only focus on the
asynchronous iteration model. In order to efficiently use such
algorithms on distributed clusters architectures, it is essential to
-map the tasks of the application to the best sub-sets of nodes of the
+map the application's tasks to the best sub-sets of nodes of the
target architecture. This mapping procedure must take into account
parameters such as network heterogeneity, computing nodes
heterogeneity and tasks heterogeneity in order to minimize the overall
% \label{fig:jaceP2P-v2}
% \end{figure}
-\myitemize{5}
-\item The first entity is the ``super-node'' %(represented by a big
+\myitemize{3}
+%\begin{itemize}
+\item The first entity is the ``super-node''. %(represented by a big
%circle in Figure \ref{fig:jaceP2P-v2}).
Super-nodes form a circular network and store, in registers, the
identifiers of all the computing nodes that are connected to the
of time, it declares that this computing node is dead and deletes
its identifier from the register.
-\item The second entity is the ``spawner''
+\item The second entity is the ``spawner''.
%(represented by a square in
% Figure \ref{fig:jaceP2P-v2}).
-When a user wants to execute a
- parallel application that requires $N$ computing nodes, he or she
- launches a spawner. The spawner contacts a super-node to reserve the
- $N$ computing nodes plus some extra nodes. When the spawner receives
- the list of nodes from the super-node, it transforms the extra
- nodes into spawners (for fault tolerance and scalability reasons)
- and stores the identifiers of the rest of the nodes in its own
- register.
+ When a user wants to execute a parallel application that requires
+ $N$ computing nodes, he or she launches a spawner. This one contacts
+ a super-node to reserve the $N$ computing nodes plus some extra
+ nodes. When it receives the list of nodes from the super-node, it
+ transforms the extra nodes into spawners (for fault tolerance and
+ scalability reasons) and stores the identifiers of the rest of the
+ nodes in its own register.
% Once the extra nodes are transformed into spawners, they
% form a circular network and they receive the register containing the
% identifiers of the computing nodes.
% of the dead node and continues the computing task from that
% checkpoint.
-\item The third entity is the ``daemon'', or the computing node,
- (represented in Figure \ref{fig:jaceP2P-v2} by a hashed small circle
- if it is idle and by a white small circle if it is executing an
- application). Once launched, it connects to a super-node and waits
- for a task to execute. Once they begin executing an application they
- form a circular network which is only used in the failure detection
+\item The third entity is the ``daemon'', or the computing node.
+% (represented in Figure \ref{fig:jaceP2P-v2} by a hashed small circle
+% if it is idle and by a white small circle if it is executing an
+% application).
+ Once launched, it connects to a super-node and waits for a task to
+ execute. Once they begin executing an application daemons form a
+ circular network which is only used in the failure detection
mechanism. Each daemon can communicate directly with the daemons
whose identifiers are in its register. At the end of a task, the
daemons reconnect to a super-node.
has an asynchronous messaging mechanism and to resist daemons'
failures, it implements a distributed backup mechanism called the
uncoordinated distributed checkpointing. For more details on the
-JaceP2P-V2 platform, readers can refer to \cite{jaceP2P-v2}.
+JaceP2P-V2 platform, interested readers can refer to \cite{jaceP2P-v2}.
% This method allows daemons to
% save their data on neighboring daemons without any user
% on distributed architectures.
+\vspace*{0.2cm}
\subsubsection*{Benefits of mapping}
\label{sec:benef}
-In the JaceP2P-V2 environment, presented in the previous section,
-there is no effective mapping solution. Indeed, when a user wants to
-launch an application, the spawner emits a request to the super-node,
-which is in charge of available daemons. Basically, the super-node
-returns the amount of requested computing nodes by choosing in its own
-list.
+In the previously described JaceP2P-V2 environment there is no
+effective mapping solution. Indeed, when a user wants to launch an
+application, the spawner emits a request to the super-node, which is
+in charge of available daemons. Basically, the super-node returns the
+amount of requested computing nodes by choosing in its own list.
%,
%if there are sufficient daemons connected on it, or in other
%super-nodes lists, in addition of its one.
In this method, the super-node only cares about the amount of
-requested nodes, it returns in general nodes in the order of their
+requested nodes and it returns in general nodes in the order of their
connection to the platform -- there is no specific selection.
Distributed architectures such as distributed clusters,
%as can be seen
cluster, in order to improve communications. But, as we use very large
problems, it is quite impossible to find clusters containing as many
computing nodes as requested. So we have to dispatch tasks over
-several clusters. That implies a nedd to deal with heterogeneity in clusters
+several clusters. That implies a need to deal with heterogeneity in clusters
computing power and heterogeneity in network. We should make a
trade-off between both components in order to take the best part
of each one to improve the overall performance.
%benefits of mapping solutions on the applications execution time.
In order to check if a tasks mapping algorithm would provide
-performance improvement in JaceP2P-V2 environment, we have evaluated
+performance improvement in the JaceP2P-V2 environment, we have evaluated
the contributions of a simple mapping algorithm, which is described in
section \ref{sec:sma}. These experiments used the NPB Kernel CG
application described in section \ref{sec:cg}, with two problem sizes
\caption{Effects of a simple tasks
mapping algorithm on application's execution time}
\label{tab:benef}
+ \vspace{-0.5cm}
\end{table}
As can be seen in Table \ref{tab:benef}, the effects of a
considered simultaneously executable and communications can take place
at any time during the computation. That is why vertices and edges are
labeled with weights
-describing computational and communication costs.\\
-
+describing computational and communication costs.
+
+\vspace*{0.2cm}
\subsubsection{Architecture modeling}
\label{sec:pbmodelarchi}
of undirectional edges. The vertices represent the computing nodes and
the edges represent the links between them. An edge $L_i \in L$ is an
unordered pair $(N_x,N_y) \in N$, representing a communication link
-between nodes $x$ and $y$. Let be $|C|$ the number of clusters in the
+between nodes $N_x$ and $N_y$. Let be $|C|$ the number of clusters in the
architecture containing computing nodes. A function $WN : N
\rightarrow R^+$ gives the computational power of nodes and $WL : L
\rightarrow R^+$ gives the communication latency of links. We define
have the same computational power with a low communication latency, a
cluster of these nodes can be defined. All participating clusters,
including computing nodes, are in the same architecture level and
-communicate through the architecture network.\\
+communicate through the architecture network.
+\vspace*{0.2cm}
\subsubsection{Mapping functions}
\label{sec:pbmodelmapping}
%In the previous section we have determined that we need to use TIG
%model based mapping algorithms to address our problem.
In the literature of the TIG mapping, we can find many algorithms,
-which can be divided into two categories. In the \textit{Edge-cuts
- optimization} class of algorithms, yhe aim is to minimize the use of the
-penalizing links between clusters. As tasks are depending on
-neighbors, which are called dependencies, the goal is to choose nodes
-where distance, in term of network, is small, to improve
-communications between tasks. Here we can cite Metis\cite{metis},
-Chaco\cite{chaco} and PaGrid\cite{pagrid} which are libraries
-containing such kind of algorithms. The main drawback of edge-cuts
-algorithms is that they do not tackle the computing nodes
+which can be divided into two categories. First, in the
+\textit{Edge-cuts optimization} class of algorithms, the aim is to
+minimize the use of the penalizing links between clusters. As tasks
+are depending on neighbors, which are called dependencies, the goal is
+to choose nodes where distance, in term of network, is small to
+improve communications between tasks. Here we can cite
+Metis\cite{metis}, Chaco\cite{chaco} and PaGrid\cite{pagrid} which are
+libraries containing such kind of algorithms. The main drawback of
+edge-cuts algorithms is that they do not tackle the computing nodes
heterogeneity issues. They only focus on communication overheads.
% The Figure \ref{fig:edge} shows
% that the optimization is on edges of communications, which are
% \caption{The edge-cuts optimization}
% \label{fig:edge}
% \end{figure}
-In the \textit{Execution time optimization} class of algorithms the
-aim is to minimize the whole execution time of the application. They
-look for nodes which can provide the small execution time of tasks
-using their computational power. Here we can cite
+Then, in the \textit{Execution time optimization} class of algorithms
+the aim is to minimize the whole execution time of the
+application. They look for nodes which can provide the small execution
+time of tasks using their computational power. Here we can cite
FastMap\cite{fastmap} and MiniMax\cite{minimax} as such kind of
algorithms. QM\cite{qm_these} is also an algorithm of this category,
but it aims to find for each task the node which can provide the best
The two classes of algorithms may fit with our goals, because in our
model we have both the computational power of nodes and communication
-costs may influence the applications performance. We can also cite
-partitioning tools like Scotch \cite{scotch} which aims at privileging
-the load balancing of their partitioning schemes. Nevertheless, to the
-best of our knowledge, none of the existing algorithms take into
-consideration the specificities of the AIAC model (see next section).
+costs which may influence the applications performance. We can also
+cite partitioning tools like Scotch \cite{scotch} which aims at
+privileging the load balancing of their partitioning
+schemes. Nevertheless, to the best of our knowledge, none of the
+existing algorithms take into consideration the specificities of the
+AIAC model (see next section).
%specifically address the AIAC mapping problem.
%As the existing mapping algorithms are not designed to fit
%with the AIAC mapping problem.
dependencies, the faster it converges. Moreover, as the JaceP2P-V2
environment is fault tolerant and tasks save checkpoints on their
neighbors, it is more efficient to save on near nodes than on far
-ones.
+ones. In the synchronous model, both heterogeneity and locality must
+be taken into account in a balanced way. In the asynchronous model,
+since no synchronization occurs, the heterogeneity issue is less
+important.
%As our problem is on task mapping, only considering the dependency
So, in this algorithm all nodes are first sorted in descending order
according to their computation power, and all tasks are mapped on
these nodes according to their identifier (they are also marked as
-``moveable'', that means that each task can be moved from a node to
+``moveable''; it means that each task can be moved from a node to
another). As in the original QM algorithm, AIAC QM keeps track of the
\textit{number of rounds} $r$ ($r > 0$), that all tasks have been
searched for a better node. This allows to reduce at each round the
dependencies of $t_i$ are mapped on. This is one of the major
modification to the original QM algorithm. It introduces a little part
of ``edge-cuts'' optimization. In the original version, it tries to
-map the task $t_i$ on the same node of one as its dependencies. As
+map the task $t_i$ on the same node of one of its dependencies. As
explain in \ref{sec:specAIACmapping}, this is not an acceptable
solution in our case. Instead, the algorithm now searches to map task
$t_i$ on nodes which are near the ones its dependencies are mapped
The complexity of the AIAC QM algorithm is about $O(n^2 \cdot
t \cdot ln(r))$. This complexity is the same as the original algorithm
(details are given in \cite{qm_these}, with an increase of a factor
-$n$, corresponding to the edge-cuts part.
+$n$, corresponding to the edge-cuts part).
\section{Experimentation}
\label{sec:expe}
Each
of these parts is assigned to a processor -- so the size of data
depends on the matrix size but also on the number of participating
-nodes. In this way, a processor is in charge of computing its $X Sub$
-part by solving the following subsystem: $ASub \times XSub = BSub -
-DepLeft \times XLeft - DepRight \times XRight$
+nodes. In this way, a processor is in charge of computing its {\small $X Sub$}
+part by solving the following subsystem: {\small $ASub \times XSub = BSub -
+DepLeft \times XLeft - DepRight \times XRight$}.
-After solving $XSub$, the result must be sent to other
+After solving {\small $XSub$}, the result must be sent to other
processors which depend on it.
% \begin{figure}[h!]
For more details about this method, interested readers are invited to
see \cite{book_raph}. In our benchmark, the sequential solver part of
the multisplitting method is the Conjugate Gradient, using the
-MTJ\cite{mtj} library. Its implementation is multi-threaded, so it
-benefits from multi-core processors.
+MTJ\cite{mtj} library. Its implementation is multi-threaded, to
+benefit from multi-core processors.
We point out here that this benchmark is a typical AIAC
application. In our study, we consider that the computational costs of
%on distributed clusters architectures, with a gain over $30\%$ on
%execution, as experiments described in section \ref{sec:benef}.
+\vspace*{0.2cm}
+
\subsubsection{Edge-cuts optimization}
\label{sec:edgcutalgo}
-\subsubsection{About heterogeneity}
-\label{sec:xphetero}
+%\subsubsection{About heterogeneity}
+%\label{sec:xphetero}
-The first experiments concern the study of the impact of the
+%The first experiments concern the study of the impact of the
+Our experiments concern the study of the impact of the
heterogeneity of the computing nodes on the mapping
results. Heterogeneity is an important factor in high performance
computing in the grid all the more so when using the asynchronous
\caption{Gains in time of the execution of the class E of the CG
application on Arc1.1 using 64 nodes}
\label{tab:exph1E}
- \vspace*{-0.3cm}
+ \vspace*{-0.4cm}
\end{table}
%\vspace{-0.5cm}
\caption{Gains in time of the execution of the class F of the CG
application on Arc1.2 using 128 nodes}
\label{tab:exph1F}
- \vspace*{-0.3cm}
+ \vspace*{-0.4cm}
\end{table}
At first, we can see that the Simple Mapping algorithm, though it is
\caption{Gains in time of the execution of the class E of the CG
application on Arc2.1 using 64 nodes}
\label{tab:exph2E}
- \vspace*{-0.3cm}
+ \vspace*{-0.4cm}
\end{table}
\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.5}
\caption{Gains in time of the execution of the class F of the CG
application on Arc2.2 using 128 nodes}
\label{tab:exph2F}
- \vspace*{-0.3cm}
+ \vspace*{-0.4cm}
\end{table}
To begin with, these experiments confirm that a mapping algorithm is
in general on the same cluster for communication efficiency reasons),
an important part of the application is lost and we cannot restart
this part; so the whole application fails. A trade-off should be done
-by having some saving nodes in external clusters.
+by having some saving nodes in external clusters.\\
% \subsubsection*{Acknowledgements}
